They used it to encompass subjects as –Psychology –Psychiatry –Sociology –Social Anthropology –History –Economics –Ethics etc. They used it to encompass.

They used it to encompass subjects as –Psychology –Psychiatry –Sociology –Social Anthropology –History –Economics –Ethics etc. They used it to encompass subjects as –Psychology –Psychiatry –Sociology –Social Anthropology –History –Economics –Ethics etc.

BehaviorStrictly speaking the meaning of the concept Behavioral Science could be made more meaningful simply by turning the two words around “Science of behavior” –in the face value means the scientific study of human and animal behavior and the mental processes that inform them. What makes a subject Scientific? In the Behavioral Sciences Dept. and for that matter this lecture; we use it to loosely to encompass several subject areas, namely –Psychology –Psychiatry (branch of medicine specializing in mental illnesses) –Sociology (the scientific study of human social relations or group life). Family, Class, community n power =how do they influence society? culture –Social Anthropology (the study of all aspects of human life and culture)INTRODUCTION

WHY BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE IN A MEDICAL SCHOOL?

Just learning all the Anatomy and the Physiology was not enough to understand the human being. You really need to understand the behavior to be able to effectively deal with the numerous medical problems; most of which have behavioral/ psychological components in their etiology. –Common malaria – behavioral components? –Non contagious diseases Essential Hypertension, diabetes Stroke/ heart diseases etcINTRODUCTION

MANAGEMENT OF ILLNESSES (MALARIA) Primary-Education and Prophylaxes Secondary-Actually medical treatment Tertiary level-Rehabilitation. –*** Lots of efforts / resources - research into treatment regimes/ effective drugs etc but with the recent adoption of “mosquito nets”, higher successes at controlling malaria is being reported. –Maintenance of hygienic environment etc. –That is the evidence that behavior is important in the etiology of malaria. MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA - EXAMPLE

–Essential hypertension? / stroke? –Diabetes? Do they have behavioral components? –Common factors Stress Compromised lifestyles –Smoking? –Lack of exercises –Lack of rest –Bad nutrition but to mention a few. –To be effective, you may have to consider the behavioral factors at the primary level. What about other illnesses?

EducationEducation for instance would require knowledge of the behavior of the people under study. It will also require knowledge in Sociology/ anthropology, which deals with the cultural practices, and value systems etc, that inform the people’s attitude and subsequently their behavior. Many such sicknesses (contagious and non- contagious) have behavioral aspects whose understanding will enhance medical practice. BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENTS

There is the need to study behavior within its cultural perspectives. As a doctor, knowing about the peoples cultural practices will also enhance your care. Why? Doctors need to observe the people – good and bad behaviors, their practices that can help you to educate them. That way he/ she reduce the incidence of the problem behaviors contributing to the illnesses and therefore reducing the illnesses you deal, hence, reducing their own workload. –Is it their environmental conditions –Their nutritional – taboos; do they not avoid some nutritional foods that would otherwise boost their nutritional status? And so on ** BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENTS

Behavioral Sciences should help you to understand your patients very well. Subjects such as motivation, personality, communication, stress etc will enhance the patient – doctor relationship. Some doctors find it difficult to communicate with their patients about their own care. They are made passive recipients of medical care? –No Explanation of procedures carried out on them –No information about diagnosis/ prognosis –No counseling skill –How do we break news to the patients? In the Hospital Setting

OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE ALL HISTORICAL

OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE Long before Behavioral Sciences became distinctly established as scientific enterprises of their own, man asked questions in order to ascertain “TRUTHS” about human behavior. Our approach to the outline of the history of Behavioral Science is to focus on the theorists and investigators of human behavior. There are so many outstanding behavioral Scientists and a review of their approaches to understanding behavior will form the basis of our understanding of Behavioral Sciences, as we know it to be today.

OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE Thus, a review of Historical development of Concepts of human behaviour from the first few models to the 1900 when Behavioral Science was established will enhance our knowledge of the past. –…a review of some observers of man; through the time of the social philosophers and the period after 1900 when schools/ perspectives of contemporary psychology, namely; (behavioral, psychoanalytic, Humanistic, neurobiological, cognitive Psychology, etc sprang up)

SOME OUTSTANDING BEHAVIOURAL SCIENTISTS SOME OBSERVERS EMIL DURKHEIM He was one of the founders of modern Sociology who published most of his work before 1900, yet enjoys frequent citation because of its relevance today. According to Nisbet, (1979, p.33), Durkheim is credited with producing the “ first clear- cut scientific study of a single social problem in modern Sociology – Suicide. –He demonstrated empirically and theoretically that this human behaviour was related to the organization – or more specifically the disorganization – of the group to which the individual belongs. Durkheim’s methodology and the theoretical implications of behaviour as a function of interaction in a social environment have endured.

OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE GREEK PHILOSOPHER PLATO (427 – 347 B.C) Plato’s initially, speculation as to the nature/ behaviour of man became theories of the state and its functioning. He maintained two beliefs; that of ideal society and his belief that the individual behaviour should be controlled by the decisions of the ruling elite (Jowett, 1892). Plato argued that people behaved as they do because they have been taught to behave so. –According to him, men are born with the capacity to learn and are trained by the society’s system of education. The way therefore to influence behaviour was to change the social system. He reached these by Armchair philosophising

ARISTOTLE Aristotle’s, on the other hand, viewed the individual’s behaviour as a reflection of the individual’s nature. In his view, society is a function of the instinctive and unchanging nature of the human being.

SOCRATES Socrates developed a third theory based on the observation of the Greek society. He argued that men naturally do things that please them and avoid the things that displease them. This was the early form of HEDONISM, which explains human behavior on the basis of pleasure and pain. In some ways hedonism is a variation of the Aristotelian belief that behavior is caused by innate natural forces, and thus is impossible to change. Let me mention that this observation constitute one important theme that runs through modern behavioral Science today and psychology for that matter.

COULD BEHAVIOUR BE SCIENTIFICALLY STUDIED? McClelland (1951) assessed the history of man’s approach to human behaviour and he summarized as follows; –…”The Hebrews felt that there were dark inscrutable forces within nature just as there were in the outside world and that even the wish to understand them was in itself bad, in fact a symptom of those evil forces themselves at work. –The Greeks, on the other hand, at least in the time of Plato and Socrates, felt that man by reasoning could arrive at understanding and control himself…. With such an inheritance from opposing Greek and Hebrew traditions, it can hardly be wondered that beliefs about the feasibility of scientific approach to personality swung from one extreme to another at different periods in the history of western Civilization (Pp.6-7). McClelland’s assessment summarizes the attitude of application of Scientific method to the study of human behaviour/ nature. And as you will see later, the Hebrews taught that there was everything wrong with trying to investigate human nature. Thus, even the wish to understand human behaviour was itself evil.

ANOTHER IMPORTANT ISSUE JOHN LOCKE AND HIS BRITISH ASSOCIATES Another important idea about human behaviour that affected contemporary Psychology was that of John Locke and his British Associations school??? –Locke and his successors thought that since man was essentially a “blank tablet” at birth, –society had the capacity to influence him in nearly any manner by the kind of education it gave him. –This was an idea that influenced J.B Watson and the other behaviorists. Machiavelli, the Italian Political advisor of the Renaissance, argued that man should accept the fact that power was his main concern in life and act accordingly.

OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE A few other scholars such as Karl Marx’s believed that the profit motive was essentially instinctual and hence could not be understood or controlled. Instead, he felt it had to be accepted and curbed by social arrangements. As will be revealed later, Freud combined the two contradictory beliefs about human behaviour/ nature (thus, that of rationality and of irrationality) above. He had the Greek’s strong faith in the power of man’s ability to understand himself. Yet the aggressive, antisocial, apparently irrational, and even mystical aspects of man’s nature fascinated him.

THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHERS The Social Philosophers included Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679), John Locke (1632 – 1704), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) and David Hume (1731 – 1776). –Their ideas have had considerable impact not only on their peers but also on subsequent generations. It must be mentioned that their ideas conflicted greatly. Descartes argues that the human beings and his behaviour were subject to the same mechanical laws of the universe as other organisms. The notion of the mind- body dualism is usually traced to Descartes, who also emphasized the innate source of man’s ideas. Yet Descartes laid the basis for later scientific approaches to man. This great man contributed to the origin of Biomedical practice.

THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHERS Hobbes originated a number of important concepts. These included the believe that all human behaviour is subject to scientific law –that all other things being equal, man chooses his course of action based on what will give him pleasure ( a variant of hedonism), and that the state must control man’s natural passion (a view similar to Machiavelli’s). He also developed a view, which was later borrowed by John Locke to form his Associationist’s concept. –This was the view that every individual comes into the world with TABULA RASA or blank slate. This view was a counterview to the prevailing doctrine that the source of man’s behaviour was inborn. Locke’s believe (as opposed to that of Descartes) that man’s ideas and behavior resulted from experience or interaction with the external environment.

THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHERS Another Scholar, Gall argued that the explanation of human behaviour would be found in the NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL makeup of the individual. He believed that fundamental innate attribute (such as pride, vanity, foresight, cunning, sense of property) existed in man and that each attribute was represented by an organ or a part of the brain. Another fact was that the development of particular characteristics would be evidenced by the size of that part of the brain. –NB. For the first time somebody has attributed human behaviour to the brain/ physiological processes.

THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHERS Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) was influenced by Gall particularly in his belief that a physiological substrate was correlated with behaviour. Comte added another notion that human beings possessed INNATE POSITIVE SOCIAL INSTINCT, which interacted with environmental demands and on which human society was based.

MARGARET MEAD (1901 – 1978) ANTHROPOLOGIST – Study of the existence of man, esp. of the beginning. Development, customs and beliefs of mankind. –Pioneered research methods that turned cultural anthropology into a major science. Her anthropological expedition include trips to SAMOA, New Guinea, Bali and other parts of South Pacific. –Her first book, COMING OF AGE IN SAMOA, was a result of study of female adolescent in that society and found no such conflicts as characterizing American adolescent period. She found sex roles and temperament to be a function of each particular culture. –Males and females were aggressive or passive in terms of what the culture dictated. She attributed the differences in behaviour between the sexes to the kind of upbringing, particularly by the mother. Throughout her career, Mead promoted the importance of environmental influences, women’s rights and harmony.

RUTH BENEDICT (1887 – 1948) Benedict (also Anthropologist) obtained her PHD in Anthropology under Franz Boas at Columbia. Most of her research dealt with the origin of American Indian cultures. She saw in each culture as assemblage of elements of several other cultures. *She saw the cultural personality as deriving from the influence of the cultures on the individual during his or her development, not from any sort of genetic determinism. –This work is of particular importance to Psychology in that it suggests a cultural determined definition of normality. Benedict’s major publications include Psychological type in the Cultures of the Southwest, in which she compares two Indian tribes, and her very important “Pattern of Culture”. As part of her wartime work, she wrote –The chrysanthemum and the sword; Pattern of Japanese Culture (1946) – a useful explanation of Japanese culture for Westerners. –Also of interest are her early Tales of the Cochiti Indians, and her two – volume Zuni Mythology.

THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHERS SIGNIFICANCE OF OBSERVERS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR Observers of human behaviour helped set the stage for one of the more dramatic and influential investigators of personality. The social philosophers shared a general belief in the role of the environment in shaping man’s personality – even to the point of viewing man as potential perfectible.

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES. SMS 154 BEHAVIOURDEFINITION?TYPES? ~ & ATTITUDE? + COGNITIVE DISSONANCE MOTIVATION?

BEHAVIOUR Behaviour is difficult to define.Behaviour is difficult to define. –It has been a subject of debate for many years. –Compulsive evasion by most authors Man lives in an environment where he is being acted on by uncountable number of stimuli through his specialized sense organsMan lives in an environment where he is being acted on by uncountable number of stimuli through his specialized sense organs –Sense Organs (in humans and other animals) faculties by which outside information is received for evaluation and response. –This is accomplished by the effect of a particular stimulus on a specialized organ, which then transmits impulses to the brain via a nerve or –Aristotle classified five senses although scientists have determined the existence of as many as 15 additional senses (buried deep in the tissues of muscles, tendons, and joints)** Senses giving rise to sensations of weight, position of the body, and amount of bending of the various joints; these organs are called proprioceptors (Find out);

4 CLASSICAL ARISTOTELIAN FIVE SENSES POP./ BIOLOGICAL names –Sight ability to see features (color, shape, size, depth etc) of objects we look at –Hearing The process of sound perception is called audition.The process of sound perception is called audition. –Touch by which the body perceives contact with substances –Smell by which odors are perceived and also account for differing taste of substances in the mouth –Taste by which four gustatory qualities (sweetness, sourness, saltiness, and bitterness) of a substance are distinguished..... Vision..... Vision –Vision is achieved when the eyes and brain work together to form pictures of the world around us. Light rays from objects are transmitted into electrical impulses & sent to the brains thro’ optic nerve for interpretation …. Auditory…. Auditory –The physical stimulus is the vibration transmitted from the object to the ear …. Tactile…. Tactile –touch is accomplished by nerve endings in the skin that convey sensations to the brain via nerve fibers …. Olfactory…. Olfactory –Molecules combine with specific cells in nose/ with chemicals of those cells – transmit impulse by olfactory nerves to brain for perception. …. Gustatory…. Gustatory –Taste is determined by receptors, called taste buds, the number and shape of which may vary greatly between one person and another

CLASSICAL ARISTOTELIAN FIVE SENSES ..... Vision/Sight –Vision is achieved when the eyes and brain work together to form pictures of the world around us. Light rays from objects are transmitted into electrical impulses & sent to the brains thro’ optic nerve for interpretation –WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\VISION.docx WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\VISION.docxWORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\VISION.docx  …. Auditory/ Hearing –The physical stimulus is the vibration transmitted from the object to the ear –WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\HEARING.docx WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\HEARING.docxWORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\HEARING.docx  …. Tactile/ Touch –touch is accomplished by nerve endings in the skin that convey sensations to the brain via nerve fibers –WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\TOUCH.docx WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\TOUCH.docxWORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\TOUCH.docx  …. Olfactory/ Smell –Molecules combine with specific cells in nose/ with chemicals of those cells – trasmit impulse by olfactory nerves to brain for perception. –WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\SMELL.docx WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\SMELL.docxWORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\SMELL.docx  …. Gustatory/ Taste –Taste is determined by receptors, called taste buds, the number and shape of which may vary greatly between one person and another –WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\TASTE.docxWORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\TASTE.docx

BEHAVIOUR These stimuli, some of which emanate from within the organism, may cause them to react to his environment.These stimuli, some of which emanate from within the organism, may cause them to react to his environment. It is this reaction that is called behaviour.It is this reaction that is called behaviour. Everything we do

BEHAVIOUR Because of man’s standing on the evolutionary scale, his behaviour is more complex than other organisms. With man a fresh complications is introduced by the fact that “we feel” and “know” & higher cognition (capable of reasoning). mental activityAgain, we possess the ability to distinguish right from wrong and so our actual behaviour often appears to be the result of certain mental activity.

BEHAVIOUR While some theorists such as the strict behaviour advocate for restriction of the definition of behaviour to only observable measurable ones? –Arguing Scientificity will suffer others (i.e., cognitive Psychologists) argue for the inclusion of covert mental processes.

BEHAVIOUR In this lecture, we shall use the term behaviour to refer to the things we do. We expand to include –all observable, measurable activities, –responses, –reactions, –movements, –open (overt) and the –mental/ cognitive (covert) processes (if it could be operationally defined and inferred) that inform them.

BEHAVIOUR AS AN ASPECT OF ATTITUDE

COGNITIVE mental processes (thinking, knowledge, memory, judgment etc). –The word cognitive comes from cognition, which is an act or process of knowing. Cognition includes attention, memory, reasoning, judgment, imagining, thinking, and some people include speech. AFFECTIVE **? WORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\EMOTION.docxWORD DOCS - HUMAN SENSES\EMOTION.docx (emotions/ feeling domain of behavior) CONATIVE ( Ability to initiate a goal directed behavior)

ATTITUDE - DEFINITION Several definitions Review a few –“ An attitude is a psychological tendency we express when we evaluate something or someone” (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993) Quoted in Matlin, M. W (1999;510) –“Learned predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner to a particular person, behavior, belief or thing” Quoted in Feldman, R. S (1996; 605)** –“ is a mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects, or institutions in a positive or negative way ”. Coon, D (1995:661)*** 1 st KEYWORDS1 st KEYWORDS –Tendency –Tendency (propensity)** –Predisposition general inclination or likelihood liability to something: a liability or tendency to do something, for example, behave in a particular way

ATTITUDE - DEFINITION 2 nd Key Evaluate* –examine and judge: (its value, quality, importance, condition) We evaluate the condition of patients, their worth etc before we deal with them) OBJECT3 rd Key (OBJECT) we evaluate –something or someone –person, behavior, belief or thing –other people, objects, or institutions 4 th Key –positive or negative way”. –Means attitude may be positive or negative. SummarySummary –Tendency/ Learned predisposition –Evaluate (Cognitive) –Positive/ negative predisposition –(ATTITUDE OBJECT) Something/ someone/ person/ behavior/ belief/ institution It means we do not only have an attitude towards products; its virtually towards every thing –Institution, friends, patients, lecturers, School, job etc

ATTITUDE “Attitudes are likes & dislikes – favorable & unfavorable evaluations of and reactions to objects, people, situations, or any other aspects of the world, including abstract ideas and social policies” by Smith et al (2001)* –Our attitudes are therefore not restricted to consumer products. We also develop attitude towards individuals (Job, Patients) and issues/ events. –Example, consider all the important people in your life, you would realize you have vastly different attitude towards each one of them, depending on the nature of your interaction with them. attitudes may range from highly positive as in the case of lover, to extremely negative, as with despised rivals. –These attitudes may range from highly positive as in the case of lover, to extremely negative, as with despised rivals.

ATTITUDE –Attitude is a –ve/+ve predisposition/tendency we acquire for an object, a person, event (called attitude object) as a result of evaluation (cognitive appraisal). –This becomes an acquired Potential (covert). Interaction of our Cognition and affective domains results in some acquired potential to behave in a positive or negative way towards the attitude object.

OVERVIEW; COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE 3 Components –1 st Cognitive –2 nd Affective & –3 rd Conative/ Behavior Social Psychologists generally consider attitudes to follow the ABC model –ABC model –ABC model suggest that an attitude has 3 components; affect, behavior, and cognition … (Rajecki, 1989) AFFECT –Encompasses our positive or negative emotions about something – how we feel about it. BEHAVIOURBEHAVIOUR –Consists of a predisposition or intention to act in a particular manner that is relevant to our attitude COGNITION –Refers to the beliefs and thoughts we hold about the object of our attitude –Beliefs??** ideas a person accepts as true and in which the person places faith and confidence –Also important are the values** (ideas or issues that are important/ appreciated)

COMPONENTS CONT’D CASE: What's yours attitude towards –Osama bin Laden?/ Kofi Anan/ VC/ Kodjo Antwi Someone’s Attitude towards Kodjo Antwi could be broken down into 3 components –Affect; positive emotion –Behavior; buys his cassette –Cognitive; belief/ judged to be a good musician Example To say alcohol (object) leads to major social problems (evaluation) is to express an attitude. What are the 3 components of the above? –Cognitive/ belief (alcohol leads to major social problems) –Affective/Emotional or Evaluative charge Alcohol is bad –Behavioral Disposition Alcohol should be avoided –Are the 3 components always mutually consistent/ in harmony?

COMPONENTS CONT’D COMPONENTS OF LOVE OF HIPLIFE MUSIC AFFECTIVE –Feeling Hip life music is fun and uplifting (A) BEHAVIOUR –Person who feels Hip - life music is fun is likely to turn to Hip life music station on car radio Buy hip life music CDs Or go to a country music concert COGNITIVE COMPONENT –Might believe that hip life music is superior to other forms of music Does it mean, if you know what someone feels about something you can predict what the person will do??

Sorry!! Attitude can turn out to be a pretty poor predictor of actual behaviour in a lot of situations According to (Wicker, 1971), research indicate that what people say and what people do are often two different things Further research later found that attitude predict behaviour only under certain conditions –Clarke et al., 1999) for eg found out although people indicated on a survey that they believed in protecting the environment and would be willing to pay for more fruits and vegetables raised under such conditions, those same people were seen to buy the ecologically – friendly fruit only in higher income grocery stores where consumers had the financial means to –REASON …..MONEY? –Implication for 3 rd world Countries

COMPONENTS CONT’D Another factor is People may hold a general attitude about something without reflecting that attitude in their behaviour Example –Nurses and Doctors may hold general attitude that people should do everything they can to protect their health and promote wellness, yet some still –Smoke tobacco, marijuana, –Fail to exercise –Often get too little sleep –Abuse drugs Ho wever more specific attitudes such as “ – “exercise is important to my immediate health” will more likely be associated with exercising behaviour (Adjen, 2001, Adjen & Fishbeing, 2000)

COMPONENTS CONT’D Yet Another factor Some attitudes are stronger than others and stronger attitudes are more likely to predict behaviour than weak ones. –A person who quits smoking because of failing health might have a stronger attitude towards secondhand smoking than someone who quits on a dare Again, the importance or salience of a particular attitude in a given situation also has an impact on behaviour. The more important attitude appears, the more likely the behaviour will match the attitude –Someone who is antismoking might be more likely to confront a smoker breaking the rules in hospital, for example, than a smoker outside the building

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE 3 components could surprisingly be at odds very often.3 components could surprisingly be at odds very often. Most people believe that alcohol is a major social problem, since it is believed to cause fatal automobile accidents and murders, yet people drink (same as smoking) Logic suggests that the cognitive and emotional aspects of attitudes would be congruent because an emotional evaluation of an object should reflect a cognitive appraisal of its qualities. However, the belief and feelings comprising an attitude frequently develop separately and can change independently acc. to –(Petty & Cacioppo 1981, 1986; Edwards 1991) –e.g. Americans survey/ polls suggested that majority did not favor policies (abortion etc) of Prez. Ronald Reagan but they maintained a highly favorable attitude towards him. Why?

DISSONANCE – CONT’D –Emotional aspect which to a large extent could be very much decisive in voting behavior rests as much on some unconscious assessment of non- verbal gestures, likeability, and apparent sincerity as on the issues; –Epstein (1994) COGNITIVE DISSONANCECOGNITIVE DISSONANCE –Occurs when a person experiences a discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior or between an attitude & a new piece of information –Occurs when a person experiences a discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior or between an attitude & a new piece of information. What happen? The discrepancy creates a state of tension (dissonance) akin to anxiety. The tension, in turn, motivate the individual to change the attitude, the behavior, or the perception of the anomalous information in order to eliminate the discrepancy and the accompanying tension, –Festinger (1957, 1962) (NB; Hedonic Principle) Cognitive Dissonance theory is essentially a Drive reduction theory in which –An attitude change is reinforced by reduction of a painful emotional state (a drive) * BEHAVIOR CHANGE?

DISSONANCE – CONT’D It means Cognitive dissonance may also arise when people carry out an act contrary to their attitudes, which frequently lead to attitude change / behavior change. Assignment –Read & Summarize a classic experiment on Cog. Dissonance by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) AND SUBMIT** Two variables that influence the extent to which dissonance arises and requires resolution are the perception of choice and the size of rewards and punishments. –If u have a gun to your head, you will easily change an attitude you publicly professed –(“Eye hann eye Kania in 1979 Coup”) larger incentives minimize dissonance acc. to Festinger.Also the smaller the reward/ punishment, the greater the attitude change because larger incentives minimize dissonance acc. to Festinger. Behaviorists (Bem, 1967, 1972) oppose Festinger’s theory of dissonance. –He offered the SELF PERCEPTION THEORY as an alternative.

DISSONANCE – CONT’D –He contended that individuals infer their attitudes, emotions, and other internal states by observing their behavior. Thus, if they see themselves telling someone that they like a task and they have only received $1 for doing so, they conclude that they must have liked it or they would not be doing it. If at gunpoint they slander their country, they conclude that they had to avoid dying, not because they dislike their country. –Acc. to Bem’s theory, the attitude people report depend on their behavior, and as their behavior changes (as a result of changes in reinforcement contingencies), so again will their attitude. –Thus, No motivation, tension, or perceived inconsistencies is involved. –SUMMARY ON COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

DISSONANCE – SUMMARY Attitude had 3 Components –Affective; Behavior; Cognitive The 3 components are not always in harmony although humans wish to maintain harmony. Disharmony create state of tension In a bit to reduce it, we change (behavioral change) a component or our attitude. –2 theories explain behavioral change –1 st by Festinger’s Cog. Dissonance Who proposed that people often change their attitudes to justify their own actions. –2 nd by Bem We infer attitude from our behavior. * Explanation*

ASSIGNMENT 2 Choose an attitude object (person, issue, event etc) Choose an attitude object (person, issue, event etc) Inquire students’ about their general attitudes towards these objects ****2 students each. Inquire students’ about their general attitudes towards these objects ****2 students each. –Positive –Negative Specifically document their attitude to reflect the 3 components Specifically document their attitude to reflect the 3 components – A (Affect) – B (Behavior) – C (Cognitive) SUGGESTED TOPICS SUGGESTED TOPICS –Alcoholism, Sex, Religion, Terrorism, Poverty, Politics, Abortion, Psychiatric illness, Nursing/ Nurses Behaviour etc, etc.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE is a concept developed by a social Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957), Theory refers to an individual’s motivation to reduce the discomfort (Dissonance) caused by inconsistent thoughts.

TYPE OF BEHAVIOUR INHERITEDINHERITED and LEARNEDLEARNED behaviours

INHERITED BEAVIOUR Simple organisms may show complex inherited behaviour patterns, which are often referred to as instinctual. They may facilitate feeding, as in the web – building of spiders, or ensure successful reproduction, as in courtship behaviour in fishes, birds, monkeys etc

INSTINCT THEORISTS INSIST that we are born with certain instincts Defined as –Inborn, inflexible, goal-directed behaviour that is characteristic of an entire species). Early Psychologist (William McDougall; 1871 – 1938) embraced instinct theories as the sole explanation of motivation of behaviour. Acc. to INSTINCT THEORIES, –people (are motivated to) engage in certain unlearned behaviors because of GENETIC PROGRAMMING. –Innate motivation inherited through genes –At appropriate time it evolves – Examples Mating behaviors of animals Migrating behaviour of animals – fishes for example

INSTINT & GENETIC MOTIVATION –Best example is the “IMPRINTING” of baby geese to their mother – following her as soon as they are able to walk. –Discovered by Etiologist Konrad Lorenz (study animal behaviour patterns) –This is an example of inherited behaviour

UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR Lorenz theorized that many animal and human tendencies are based on latent genetic patterns and are triggered by events in the environment. Ethologists hold that much of what animals know is innate (instinctive). Examples –*digger wasp, is programmed to find and capture only honey bees for reproduction* –**Baby birds – whom to go for food & how the they all behave during feeding – are genetic**….Penguine. –Young fowls are born able to recognize and flee from the silhouette of hawks. –***Mating in animals such as fishes & birds – right x’tics at the right time*** and –Imprinting in baby geese (Next Slide)

IMPRINTING Baby geese are born to imprint – follow the mother as soon as they are able to walk. –Konrad discovered that the stimulus eliciting this instinctive behaviour is the first moving object that the newly hatched goslings see, which in nature is invariably the mother. –By separating newborn goslings from the mother and showing them other moving things, Lorenz got them to faithfully follow a variety of “peculiar” objects such as a wooden box on wheels, and even himself.

ANOTHER EXAMPLE - ATTACHMENT One other example of modern instincts theory is John Bowlby’s view that babies have in built – in tendencies to become attached (emotional bond) to the adult who cares for them… (1982) Acc to Wortman and Loftus (1992), this serves the important function of encouraging infants to stay close to their parents, thus affording them protection. Human instincts are less rigid and automatic than those of many other species – because they are more open to variation due to different learning experiences. They explain - Unlike imprinting in baby geese, which occurs quickly and cannot be changed once established, the attachment of human babies to their parents –is a product of a great many hours of interaction, –leaves room for attachment to other caregivers, –and can vary greatly in quality due to learning.

BEHAVIOUR –They thought just as animals display instinctive behaviour patterns, such as migration or mating behaviors, human behavior was also motivated by INBORN BEHAVIOUR REPERTOIRES

INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR Humans are also said to be born with some inherited behaviours – present at birth. They are reflex movements that are inborn and made without thinking. They are Adaptive for example human infants cling instinctively to their mothers. As mentioned most of them come as reflex (involuntary) responses in infants but some seem to get extincted after sometimes.

INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR Example include swallowing and sucking reflexes, rooting (turning the head towards the direction of touched cheek); grasp (hand automatically grasp); and walking reflexes (walking movements when held upright with feet touching a firm surface).

INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR The rest are startle reflex –(hands are clenched, and elbows are bent to bring forearm in when startled) when they are startled by sudden noise or bright light. Moro falling reflex –(catching movement in the incidence of sudden movement). There are many more of such reflex responses in infants but some seem to get extincted after sometimes. According Pamela Minett (1994), these reflexes are replaced by actions which the baby has to learn by age 3 months. –For example the walking reflexes disappear long before the child learns to walk.

SOME REFLEXES

INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR these inherited actions of many of these kinds are modified by experience, This allows for an animals behaviour to be better suited to a complex and changing environment. Human inherited behaviours are no exceptions.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Some other behaviors are learned. –Lion’s cubs, for example, learn to hunt by watching and copying their parents, while many insectivorous birds learn to avoid eating unpalatable prey through trial and error. The well – developed brain of humans and other animals such as elephants, allow them to learn a wide range of complex behavioral patterns.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS These include complex social, manipulative, and mental skills, and in humans, speech. Occasionally, learned behaviour patterns may be transmitted culturally from generations to generations.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS The conclusion on these two types of behaviours is that the debate (Nature – nurture debate) is still ongoing (Nativism vs. Empiricism**).

CONCLUSION - BEHAVIOUR It could however be safe to say that whiles some behaviour are inherited, others are learned and even those that are inherited are acted upon by experience to make it more adaptable. So there is no clear cut distinction between the two, thus, it’s a daunting – almost impossible task to determine how much of each; NATURE AND NURTURE contributes to a given behaviour

MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR FROM VARIOUS PSYCHOLOGY, PERSPECTIVES/ THEORISTS. We are concerned not so much with what the organism does, nor with how it accomplishes what it does, as we are with why it acts as it does. Psychologists do not agree on the motivation of the behaviour. Depending on the theoretical leaning, or school of thought they come from, they may explain motivation differently. Schools of thoughts used here refer to psychologists who held similar views and had similar approaches to the study of psychology.

MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR Each school developed around one eminent thinker and in most cases, in and around a geographical area. In founding stages of psychology many schools sprang up, namely the structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism and cognitive psychology. Some died with the death of their leaders, but those that exist today do explain motivated behavior differently.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Psychodynamic theory was born out of the clinical practice of a medical doctor (neurologist by training) who was called Sigmund Freud (under 1856 –1939). It was concerned with neurotic patients. Basic tenet Contrary to our view that we are rational and exercise free will, behavior is motivated by unconscious psychological forces (sexual instincts and urges) that are not available to the rational, conscious part of our mind.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY MOTIVATION: That is to say that the unconscious conflict within the individual influences much of human thought and actions.

BEHAVIOURISM The name speaks for itself, Behaviour. They argued that the whole idea of mental life (perception, sensation unconscious etc) if could not be measured physically were all superstitious. One assumption is that all behavior occur in response to stimulation and that all actions and feelings are elicited by unconditioned or conditioned stimuli. SCHOLARS John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, Edward lee Thorndike, etc

BEHAVIOURISM BASIC TENET –Psychology should study only observable measurable behavior - Nothing more. Anything that cannot be defined located measured cannot be an object of scientific study. They emphasize environmental determinant of behaviour. VIEW ON MOTIVATED BEHAVIOURAL –Behavior is motivated by reward and punishment that usually precede, and come after the behavior

HUMANISTIC/ EXISTENTIAL (PHENOMENOLOGICAL) - HUMANISTIC Humanists were referred to as the “third forced”. Humanistic the psychology is closely related to the existential psychology because both schools are concerned with subjective experiences insist that people must learn how to realize their human potential.

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES They insist that human beings with intrinsically good as opposed to psych dynamic view and that behavior to them is motivated by the urge to achieve one’s potential and self actualize. Some scholars include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Is one of the newest fields of psychology. It began in the 60’s. While behaviours believe that mental processes could not be studied scientifically, cognitive psychologists believed otherwise. That is to say that mental process should be studied scientifically.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Tenet They argue, although we cannot observe cognitive processes directly we can observe behavior and make inferences about the kind of cognitive processes that underlie the behavior. Behaviour is motivated by cognitive/ mental processes.

SUMMARY Behaviour – reaction to stimuli that impinge on our senses –Everything we do –Define to include mental (covert processes) Aspects of attitude (Cognitive; Affective; Conative) –Harmony/ cognitive dissonance & Beh. Change TYPES – Learned & Inherited (Genetic) Motivation –Psychodynamic –Behaviorists –Humanistic –cognitive

CRITERIA FOR ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR RESEARCH? @ LEAST FIVE (5)

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION IN BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES HUMAN BIOLOGY I

RESEARCH METHODS When we say a subject is a science systematic method –it applies systematic method of enquiry to understanding phenomenon step by step –Science means using systematic (step by step) process to acquiring knowledge/ arrive at a particular conclusion. –Behavioral sciences therefore applies systematic methods in understanding human all areas of specialization/ subjects use the scientific method to study behavior – only their perspectives are different.

R. METHODS CONT’D objectivity acceptabilityDefinitions of scientific method use such concepts as objectivity of approach to and acceptability of the results of scientific study. –Objectivity things as they are –Objectivity indicates the attempt to observe things as they are, without falsifying observations to accord with some preconceived world view. –Acceptability reproduced –Acceptability is judged in terms of the degree to which observations and experimentations can be reproduced

R. METHODS CONT’D Scientific method could involve 2 main approaches namely; –inductive reasoning reasoning from specific observations and experiments to more general hypotheses and theories –inductive reasoning (reasoning from specific observations and experiments to more general hypotheses and theories) and –deductive reasoning reasoning from theories to account for specific experimental results –deductive reasoning (reasoning from theories to account for specific experimental results). attempts to develop the broad laws –By such reasoning processes, science attempts to develop the broad laws—such as Isaac Newton's law of gravitation—that become part of our understanding of the natural and by extension Behavioral laws.

SYSTEMATIC – STEPS?? The scientific method is a systematic strategy designed to obtain accurate information. It includes the following steps; –identifying and analyzing a problem, –developing tentative explanations, research design –collecting data (Using some research design), –drawing conclusions, and collecting additional information to confirm or revising the theory. Science means using systematic (step by step) process to acquiring knowledge/ arrive at a particular conclusion.

RESEARCH METHODS Steps include –Identifying and Analyze a Problem Violence of sports fans and drinking? smoking and lung cancer? Valentine celebration contribute to HIV/ AIDS in Ghana? –Develop Tentative Explanations –Develop Tentative Explanations by way of hypothesis (later gets proven to become theory) Research designResearch design what method do u use?/ is permissible? –Collect data –Draw Conclusion Publication –revisit the theory before Publication

RESEARCH METHODS Identifying and Analyze a Problema. Identifying and Analyze a Problem. isolatedefine –This is usually the first step. What problem do you want to solve? You do not only undertake a general discussion of the problem, you isolate, focus on, and define what you want to study. –“Violence of sports fans and drinking”, –“smoking and lung cancer” –“Psychological stress increases the likelihood of physical illness” –“Valentine celebration contribute to HIV/ AIDS in Ghana” –“Lack of exercise contribute to illnesses” etc. –SOURCES OF RESEARCH questions????

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS research sourcesVariety of research sources; –Questions –Questions raised by previously conducted research which was inconclusive – from critical evaluation of published literature. –Hypotheses –Hypotheses logically deduced from existing theories –Hypothesis suggested by clinical observations and insights effectiveness of currently used or new treatment –Questions raised concerning the effectiveness of currently used or new treatment or assessment techniques. –Solutions required to pressing problems much of applied health sciences research may be seen as a process of identifying, clarifying and solving problems –Solutions required to pressing problems faced in professional settings, including problems reported by patients. Thus much of applied health sciences research may be seen as a process of identifying, clarifying and solving problems

RESEARCH METHODS Develop Tentative Explanations Next is to discover the most important factors/ variables involved. To do this Psychologists often construct a theory –Thus, (A theory is an organized set of principles that is designed to explain and predict some phenomenon. – Good theories also provide specific testable predictions, or hypotheses, about the relation between two or more variables. –Formulating a hypothesis to be tested is the first important step in conducting research –Formulating a hypothesis to be tested is the first important step in conducting research.

RESEARCH METHODS Hypothesis is an intelligent guess that is to be tested to determine its accuracy. It breaks your theory into testable forms. A frequent goal in research is to test a hypothesis. propositions about relationships between variables** or differences between groups that are to be tested. –Hypotheses are propositions about relationships between variables** or differences between groups that are to be tested. (Variable is anything/ property that can change/ vary from one case to another – OR …that can take on different values)(Variable is anything/ property that can change/ vary from one case to another – OR …that can take on different values) Hypotheses may be concerned with relationships between observations or variables, for e.g. levels of exercise health care expenditure –Is there an association between levels of exercise and annual health care expenditure in Ghana? –Or differences between groups, say, do patients treated under therapy “x” exhibit greater improvement than those treated under therapy “y”?

EXAMPLES OF THEORIES n HYPOTHESES EXAMPLES OF THEORIES THEIR HYPOTHESIS.docxEXAMPLES OF THEORIES THEIR HYPOTHESIS.docx

HYPOTHESIS Do all researches have hypotheses? –Acc to Polgar and Thomas (2003): Intro to research in Health Sciences; p.25 –Some research projects do not have hypothesis to be tested in any formal sense. For example, if one is measuring the health needs of a local community, there need not be any expectation or hypothesis to be tested –Some research projects do not have hypothesis to be tested in any formal sense. For example, if one is measuring the health needs of a local community, there need not be any expectation or hypothesis to be tested. –Does it mean the research is deficient? –No, it means it has a different objective from other types of research projects. In fact for qualitative research ( QUALITATIVE.docx ), QUALITATIVE.docx –holding clear cut hypothesis may prejudice the investigation (e.g. Literature review) –In these cases we talk about research having aims or objectives, rather than hypothesis. Restricting alcohol use by sports fans will reduce sports related violence Higher levels of smoking leads to lung cancer.**

HYPOTHESIS When formulating aims or hypotheses, we must specify the variables being studied, and how these variables are to be observed; (define variables). Examples; Consider “Coronary disease”-symptoms?? Severe periodic pain in the chest and upper left arm Occlusion (blockings) of the coronary arteries, reducing blood flow Sudden death –Supposing a new drug “x” is introduced for tx. of coronary disease, the researcher may hypothesis as ff; Patients diagnosed with coronary dx, taking drug “x” will report fewer incidence of pain in the chest and upper left arm than patients taking traditionally used drugs. Patients diagnosed and using drug “x” will have greater volume of blood flow through their coronary arteries than patients taking drug “y” Fewer patients diagnosed with coronary dx. Taking drug “x” will die during a 5 year period than those taking traditionally used drug “y”.

RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH DESIGN? –Circumstances will determine –Could human be used? –Ethical? –Could you induce certain disease conditions because you want to understand it. –That’s what research design is all about Overview of a number.

RESEARCH DESIGNS Two BROAD DESIGNS for our considerations Non- ExperimentalNon- Experimental/ Descriptive methods (Case studies; naturalistic observations; survey etc) and ExperimentalExperimental approach. These are the focus of today’s lectures. We shall be looking at each of these methods; –how they contribute to knowledge; –their weaknesses and strengths.

Archival Studies One way to learn about people is through archival studies, an examination of existing records of human activities. Psychological researchers often examine old newspaper stories, medical records, birth certificates, crime reports, popular books, and artwork. They may also examine statistical trends of the past, such as crime rates, birth rates, marriage and divorce rates, and employment rates. cannot unwittingly influence the subjectsThe strength is that by engaging in a secondhand observation of people, researchers cannot unwittingly influence the subjects by their presence. –However, available records of human activity are not always complete or detailed enough to be useful.

Literature Reviews (More Academic Study of records) To summarize and interpret an entire body of research, psychologists rely on two methods. One method is a narrative review of the literature, in which –a reviewer subjectively evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the various studies on a topic and argues for certain conclusions. –Another method is meta-analysis, a statistical procedure used to combine the results from many different studies. –By meta-analyzing a body of research, psychologists can often draw precise conclusions concerning the strength and breadth of support for a hypothesis.

CASE STUDIES Sometimes psychologists interview, test, observe, and investigate the backgrounds of specific individuals in detail. Such case studies are conducted when researchers believe that an in-depth look at one individual will reveal something important about people in general. often take a great deal of time the results may be limitedCase studies often take a great deal of time to complete, and the results may be limited by the fact that the subject is atypical. Austrian physician Sigmund Freud based his theory of psychoanalysis on his experiences with troubled patients. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget first began to formulate a theory of intellectual development by questioning his own children. ADVANTAGE AND DISAVANTAGE?

CASE STUDIES CONT’D gather a great deal of detailed informationAllow researchers to gather a great deal of detailed information by concentrating on a single individual. useful for generating topicsuseful for generating topics for further study by other methods One potential disadvantage of the method is that what we learn by studying one individual may not apply to other individuals. It is said therefore to have limited generalizability

Surveys In contrast with the in-depth study of one person, surveys study a specific population or group of people. Surveys involve asking people a series of questions about their behaviors, thoughts, or opinions. in person phonethrough the mailSurveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through the mail. Most surveys study a specific group—for example, college students, working mothers, men, or homeowners. Rather than questioning every person in the group, survey researchers choose a representative sample of people and generalize the findings to the larger population (SAMPLING METHODS - photocopies)

RESEARCH METHODS Surveys may pertain to almost any topic. Often surveys ask people to report their feelings/attitude about various social and political issues, the TV shows they watch, or the consumer products they purchase. –people’s sexual practices; estimation of the use of cigarettes, alcohol, and other drugs; could be studies by survey. who the respondents are (representative?)The results can be influenced, and biased, by two factors: who the respondents are (representative?) and how the questions are asked. For a survey to be accurate, the sample being questioned must be representative of the population on key characteristics such as sex, race, age, region, and cultural background To ensure similarity to the larger population, survey researchers usually try to make sure that they have a random sample, a method of selection in which everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen. –When the sample is not random, the results can be misleading –Advantage……Allows for studies of large population

Naturalistic Observations In naturalistic observation, the researcher observes people/ animals as they behave in the real world. The researcher simply records what occurs and does not intervene in the situation. Behavioral scientists use naturalistic observation to –study the interactions between parents and children, –doctors and patients, –police and citizens, and –managers and workers. to describe the settings, frequency and characteristics of certain behaviorsThe goals are to describe the settings, frequency and characteristics of certain behaviors. Caution is needed not to affect the behavior we observe and record. Observations that interfere with the behavior being studied are termed REACTIVE. “They try to blend with the surroundings”. Naturalistic observation is common in Anthropology (the study of humankind in all its aspects, especially human culture or human development),

RESEARCH METHODS EthnologistsEthnologists, who study the behavior of animals in their natural habitat, also use this method. For example, British ethnologist Jane Goodall spent many years in African jungles observing chimpanzees—their social structure, courting rituals, struggles for dominance, eating habits, and other behaviors. developmental psychologistsNaturalistic observation is also common among developmental psychologists who study social play, parent-child attachments, and other aspects of child development. These researchers observe children at home, in school, on the playground, and in other settings. ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE Advantage is that the observation is as close as it occurs freely since there are no manipulations. The results are not generalizable because there is no manipulation and too many variables are at work.

Correlational Studies - LINK the extent to which two variables are associated lung cancerA correlation is a statistical measure of the extent to which two variables are associated How related are smoking and lung cancer? A positive correlation exists when two variables increase or decrease together. –For example, frustration and aggression are positively correlated, meaning that as frustration rises, acts of aggression rise. (direct relation) –A negative correlation exists when increases in one variable are accompanied by decreases in the other, and vice versa. Inverse relationship –For example, friendships and stress-induced illness are negatively correlated, meaning that the more close friends a person has, the fewer stress-related illnesses the person suffers. Inverse relationship – Result always expressed in terms of coefficient of correlation (i.e degree of link) and expressed by the letter “r “. The R-value is usually between zero and one. 0 = no link and 1 = highly correlated. The signs e. g r = 0.75 means that there is positive correlation, i. e as one- value/ (variable) increases, the other increases and the value/ magnitude of relation is 0.75.

Correlational Studies R = - 0.75 means as one value increases, other decreases and the degree of correlation is 0.75 (Positively or negatively correlated). Example, emotional experience in inversely related to academic performance. ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE This gives you information concerning chosen areas of research. It helps with generation of topics. The disadvantage is that No causal effect could be deduced. You cannot also generalize findings.

Experiments (Most Powerful method) Most of the above cannot provide CAUSE – AND- EFFECT. To determine if one variable actually causes another, psychologists must conduct experiments. keeping other aspects of the situation constantIn an experiment, the psychologist manipulates one factor in a situation— keeping other aspects of the situation constant —and then observes the effect of the manipulation on behavior. two or more groupsThe people whose behavior is being observed are the subjects of the experiment. Usually two or more groups independent variable dependent variableThe factor that an experimenter varies (the proposed cause) is known as the independent variable and the behavior being measured (the proposed effect) is called the dependent variable. In a test of the hypothesis that frustration triggers aggression for e.g., frustration would be the independent variable, and aggression the dependent variable.

Experiments three requirementsThere are three requirements for conducting a valid scientific experiment: –(1) control over the independent variable, –(2) the use of a comparison group, and –(3) the random assignment of subjects to conditions. In its most basic form, then, a typical experiment compares a large number of subjects who are randomly assigned to experience one condition with a group of similar subjects who are not. experimental group control groupThose who experience the condition constitute the experimental group, and those who do not make up the control group. –E.g Bandura’s experiment?

Experiments independent variableIf the two groups differ significantly in their behavior during the experiment, that difference can be attributed to the presence of the condition, or independent variable. impeded their efforts to complete an important task aggressivenessFor example, to test the hypothesis that frustration triggers aggression, one group of researchers brought subjects into a laboratory, impeded their efforts to complete an important task (other subjects in the experiment were not impeded), and measured their aggressiveness toward another person. subjects who had been frustrated were more aggressive been frustratedThese researchers found that subjects who had been frustrated were more aggressive than those who had not been frustrated.

Experiments Psychologists use many different methods in their research. Knowledge build over time. replicatedFirst, a new discovery must be replicated. Replication refers to the process of conducting a second, nearly identical study to see if the initial findings can be repeated. If so, then researchers try to determine if these findings can be applied, transferred, or generalized to other settings. –Generalizability refers to the extent to which a finding obtained under one set of conditions can also be obtained at another time, in another place, and in other populations.

QUASI- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS QUASI (Resembling) – Experimental Sometimes Behaviorists cannot study cause - and – effect questions by means of a true experiment. cannot be experimentally manipulated.Certain variables, for one reason or another, cannot be experimentally manipulated. –Example undertaking a Correlation study between stress and Essential hypertension. – Or we are interested in how effectively the death penalty deters murder; we would not be able to arrange a true experiment. In such a case you may want to determine peoples attitude to assess the impact. ethical reasonsOther factors are, for ethical reasons, beyond a researcher’s control we cannot conduct experiment where we randomly assign subjects to experimental and control groups.

QUASI- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS For instance a behaviorist may suspect that overly harsh or overly lax parental discipline may lead to juvenile delinquency, but he or she could certainly not encourage these potentially harmful parenting style in order to investigate. Best way is to wait for the experimental and control groups to form naturally in real life. This is like the true experiment but because the experimenter has far less control over variables than they do in true experiments, and Because they cannot assign subjects randomly to conditions, such studies are called ~. –Example stress and essential hypertension.

COMMON STRATEGIES COMMON TO ALL RESEARCH METHODS INTERVIEW – conversation with purpose –Structured –Unstructured OBSERVATION IN MEDICAL PRACTICE –In Medicine, just observing the physical body constitute a vital part. Pain for instance, could sometimes be observed from the Patient’s face. Sometimes a covered wound is a major lead to that Patient’s diagnosis. Or of gestures are very important. SAMPLING*** –Simple random, Stratified Sampling, Systematic/ Cluster etc

Ethical Considerations in Research Supporters of animal rights regard most animal experimentation as unethical. Many scientists defend animal studies as necessary for advancing understanding of human diseases and improving the quality of human life. The American Psychological Association recommends that researchers –(1) tell prospective subjects what they will experience so they can give informed consent to participate; –(2) instruct subjects that they may withdraw from the study at any time; –(3) minimize all harm and discomfort; –(4) keep the subjects’ responses and behaviors confidential; and –(5) debrief subjects who were deceived in some way by fully explaining the research after they have participated.

PERSPECTIVES IN CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY ? Psychology has a long past but a short history.

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY SHORT OVERVIEW Why it has a long past? It was part of other subjects. What prevented scientific study of man? History How did Psychology evolve as a separate subject and a science? What happened that we seem to have separate schools/ perspectives today? Are all these schools in existence today?

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? () First what is not Psychology?

What is not Psychology Do Psychologists read the mind? People claim to possess the ability to communicate mentally and to predict the future. All the above, lie in the domain of what we call PARAPSYCHOLOGY. Parapsychology is the study of Extra – Sensory Perception (ESP) and other “ PSI” phenomenon or events that seem to defy acceptable scientific laws.

What’s Psychology – contd. Parapsychologists seek answers to the questions raised by 4 basic forms that ESP could take. These are; (1) CLAIRVOYANCE** ; The ability to perceive events or gain information in ways that appear unaffected by distance or normal physical barriers. E.g what’s in a box or film canisters or two people communicate from two locations. (2) TELEPATHY*** ; Extrasensory perception of another person’s thoughts/ emotion, or ability to read someone’s else’s mind. (3) PRECOGNITION ; the ability to perceive or accurately predict future events (Prophetic dreams etc). E.g. palm reading/ horoscope etc. (4) PSYCHOKINESIS ; Ability to exert influence over in-animate objects by Willpower; (“charm on TV3”) All these have not gained approval into mainstream  because we have not been able to subject these claims to independent scientific enquiries.

CLAIRVOYANCE Clairvoyance, ability to see or visualize objects and events beyond the range of normal sight. Clairvoyance is a form of extrasensory perception, or ESP, which includes any ability to gain information by psychic means, rather than through the physical senses. According to belief, clairvoyance usually occurs when a person with clairvoyant powers is in a state of trance, during which that person can describe the objects or events that appear in his or her mind. Most scientists, however, deny that claims of clairvoyance have been supported by any substantial evidence.

TELEPATHY Telepathy, perception of another person’s thoughts by means beyond the ordinary senses. The term telepathy was first used by English essayist and poet Frederic W. H. Myers in 1882. Myers defined telepathy as “the communication of impressions of any kind from one mind to another, independent of the recognized channels of sense.

Why are the above not accepted as part of Psychology? They defy scientific principles of systematic enquiry into phenomena. –P–Provided inconsistent statistical evidence for any one evidence, there is one counter evidence. –P–People with these powers often fail to be able to enact them for scientific purposes, etc

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Term Psychology (  ) is derived from Greek roots PSYCHY (soul/mind) and LOGOS (Study). We have several definitions but certain keywords are common – Perusal of Psychology bks… Key words ; –(a) scientific/science Although psychologists share the average person’s interest in behaviour and unseen mental processes that shape it, they rely on scientific method.*** –(b) Behaviour and Already defined –(c) animal/human

Quick review of definitions – Non embracing Kassin (2001) – scientific study of behaviour and the mind, p.4 Coon (1992) – as the scientific study of human and animal behaviour, p.2 Kalat (1996) – as the systematic study of behaviour and experience, Hockenbury and Hockenbury (2001:3) – as the science of behaviour and mental processes Morris and Maesto (1999) – as the science of behaviour and unconscious mental processes that shape it, p.8

Defining Psychology - contd SCIENCE   is a science because it applies systematic method of enquiry to understanding human and animal behaviour; The aims of employing scientific method are –1. to observe and describe –2. to understand –3. to predict and –to 4. Achieving a measure of control of behaviour.

Psychology -contd BEHAVIOUR –overt behaviour alone? –mental processes as well? ANIMAL/HUMAN; –Controversy existed as to what the subject matter of  should be; –animals included or human beings alone? Contemporary trend in Psychology (  ) seem to accept animals, humans and even cognitive/mental processes as subject matter.

Defining Psychology – cont’d DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY (embracing) –– could be defined as the scientific study of behaviour (whether animal/human) and the unseen mental processes that shape it. Psychologists collect data through CAREFUL, SYSTEMATIC, OBSERVATION; –a–attempt to explain what they have observed by developing THEORIES, make new PREDICTION based on theories and then SYSTEMATICALLY test those predictions through additional observations and experimentations to determine whether they are correct

CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES To do justice to the contemporary perspectives** (evaluation of a situation or facts, especially from a person’s point of view ) in Psychology, we consider one favorite question. Psychology has a long past but a short history. –Long Past? –Short history

COULD BEHAVIOUR BE SCIENTIFICALLY STUDIED? History – outstanding Observers McClelland (1951) assessed the history of man’s approach to human behaviour and he summarized as follows; –…”The Hebrews felt that there were dark inscrutable forces within nature just as there were in the outside world and that even the wish to understand them was in itself bad, in fact a symptom of those evil forces themselves at work. –The Greeks, on the other hand, at least in the time of Plato and Socrates, felt that man by reasoning could arrive at understanding and control himself…. With such an inheritance from opposing Greek and Hebrew traditions, it can hardly be wondered that beliefs about the feasibility of scientific approach to personality swung from one extreme to another at different periods in the history of western Civilization (Pp.6-7). McClelland’s assessment summarizes the attitude of application of Scientific method to the study of human behaviour/ nature. And as you will see later, the Hebrews taught that there was everything wrong with trying to investigate human nature. Thus, even the wish to understand human behaviour was itself evil.

SCHOOLS/ PERSPECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY Question of Human Behaviour and Mental processes (Psychology) dates as far back as the time of Plato and Aristotle (both Philosophers). Not until the late 1800’s they never applied the scientific method to questions that had puzzled philosophers for centuries, Psychology was still a part of philosophy. –A–Armchair philosophizing In other words  was a part of philosophy until late 1800’s because matters of human behaviour was a no go area. Reason for man’s behaviour a restricted area? Taboo?

Schools - contd They thought that normal scientific enquiries could not be applied to human being since laws of nature did not affect human by virtue of the positions they occupied (i.e. between the angels and the beast). For them science was the study of the natural world (planets, plants, and etc) and not human beings –w–who possessed consciousness; –w–who exercised free will and self-determination. Therefore, the study of human beings belonged to the realms of philosophy and metaphysics –(–(branch of philosophy dealing with nature of existence, truth and knowledge)

Some radical events reversed these trend? Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) was among the first scholars to change this trend by the publication of his two books; –“–“the origin of Species” - 1859 and –“–“the Descent of Man” in 1871. What were his arguments? Darwin marshaled the evidence that like all other forms of life on our planet, human beings evolved through a process of Natural selection. This conclusion was so radical that it took two decades to publish.

This opened the way and inspired young thinkers to apply the scientific method to human behaviour. This paved the way for modern Psychology. Until then the study of behaviour belonged to the reams of philosophy. QUESTION –What about animal and human do we investigate? –How do we do that? Various Schools of  sprang up as a result of Darwin’s Radical ideas that paved the way for the scientific study of behaviour. Why? they were in doubt as to the subject matter of psychology? As a result, scholars began to group themselves and most often in a common geographical area. They also applied common systems in their studies.

Schools - contd Various schools came into being. Most came as a result of criticisms of the previous unsatisfactory ones. These schools included; –Structuralism –Functionalism –Behaviorism –Psychoanalytic/ Freudian Psychology –Phenomenology; Humanistic & Existential –Gestalt Psychology –Cognitive Psychology –Psychobiological/ Neurobiological, etc

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY Most of these came as a result of their disagreement over what they thought the new science of Psychology should study. Some died with the death of their leading theorists.

Schools - STRUCTURALISM The first to be established by Wilhelm Wundt (a Physiologist) and Edward Bradford Titchener, when the former founded the 1st Psychological laboratory in Leipzig in Germany in 1879. He applied experimental methods to study of fundamental psychological processes such as mental rxt time in response to visual & auditory stimuli.** BASIC AIM AND TENET; –Set out to study human perception to uncover its basic element and how they are interrelated. –They undertook to analysis consciousness according to elements, to discover the connections of these elements and finally to establish laws governing these connections. –Their mission to establish basic structures of human consciousness and perception earned them their name.

Structuralism… cont’d –Take banana; a fruit, something to peel and eat (our own associations based on our past experience) –In reality it is, a long yellow object - the rest are associations Wundt & students therefore decided to strip perception of all its associations…Their mission? –to find the most fundamental elements, or “atoms” of perception/thought/consciousness.

Schools - contd His students; most importantly Edwards Titchener carried the new science to universities around the world.His students; most importantly Edwards Titchener carried the new science to universities around the world. Titchener accepted a position at Cornell University (Ithaca), New York where he established a 26 room psychological lab.Titchener accepted a position at Cornell University (Ithaca), New York where he established a 26 room psychological lab. He broke consciousness into 3 basic structures;He broke consciousness into 3 basic structures; –PHYSICAL SENSATIONS(what we see) –FEELINGS(such as liking /dislike) & –MEMORIES(memories of similar things) –What was their view of the subject matter of the new science?

METHOD - INTROSPECTION What method did they use? - INTROSPECTION –Defined as objective self-analysis (of thoughts, feelings, heartbeat, respiration rates when listening to a metronome). –EXAMPLE a book is shown & subjects are required to reconstruct their sensation, perception and feelings immediately after viewing it Thro’ introspection they report everything notable about the event –Colour –Smell –Feelings etc. –This method came under serious criticism How objective could one be objective You are likely to observe & to document what you want to see.

INTROSPECTION - CRITICISMS Criticism include –Introspection was unreliable (subjective) way of investigation Different subjects provided different report on a single stimuli –Introspection could not be used to study children or animals ? –Complex but interesting topics; such as learning, development, mental disorders etc could not be investigated using introspection.

SCHOOLS These Structuralists saw Psychology’s role as identifying these STRUCTURES of perception/ consciousness and showing how they are interconnected and integrated.These Structuralists saw Psychology’s role as identifying these STRUCTURES of perception/ consciousness and showing how they are interconnected and integrated. Wundt’s insistence on measurement and experimentation marked psychology as a science from the beginning.Wundt’s insistence on measurement and experimentation marked psychology as a science from the beginning. Structuralism – the first school to disappearStructuralism – the first school to disappear

Schools - FUNCTIONALISM. Came to be born out of the criticism of structuralism. Functionalist criticized Wundtz that his “basic structures /atoms of experience” i.e. pure sensations without association simply did not exist in life experience. MAIN SCHOLAR ; – William James –First American Psychologist –Earned a degree in Physiology and studied philosophy at leisure such that he became confused as to which of the 2 to choose –He eventually chose Psychology which he found to be the link between the two subjects (Physiology and Philosophy)

FUNCTIONALISM BASIC TENET ; that our perceptions and sensations come with learning which goes a long way to help us to FUNCTION.** –Meaning? Mental associations enable us to benefit from previous experience. E.g if you perceive banana without learning, the next time you see it, you would not be able to recognize it. U may probably have to relearn what banana is Wake up => go for lectures? –According to James, the learning bit makes it less difficult as it becomes much of a habit. –Suggested that when we repeat something, our nervous systems are changed so that each repetition is easier than the last time, thus enhancing our ADAPTABILITY or FUNCTIONING.

Schools – cont’d FUNCTIONALISM –T–Thus, mental associations enable us to benefit form previous experience. Simply put Perception + Learning/Association = Adaptation. –O–Or else we shall wake up forgetting and therefore relearning all over every now and then. –S–SUMMARY James’ functionalists theory of mental life and behaviour goes beyond mere sensation and perception by exploring how an organism learns to function in its environment.

Schools… PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY PSYCHODYNAMIC  This was born out of clinical practice of a Medical Doctor (Neurologist) called Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939). Non academic school - It was therefore not strictly concerned with sensation, attention, perception, learning etc, like all other schools. It was rather concerned with NEUROTIC PATIENTS (Patients with hysteric symptoms). This notwithstanding has greatly influenced psychology as well as other areas of social science BASIC TENET; Contrary to our view that we are rational and exercise “free will”, behaviour is motivated by our unconscious psychological forces (sexual instincts and urges that are not available to the rational, conscious part of our mind.

Schools – cont’d…Psychoanalytic Unconscious conflicts/forcesThat is to say that Unconscious conflicts/forces within the individual influence many humans thought and actions. This view laid the foundation for the study of personality and Psychological disorders,, and remains influential today. He divided the mind into three parts, namely; –the id – the unconscious parts operating on pleasure principles –The ego – the rational planful mediator of conflict operating on reality principles –Superego – in touch with reality, disciplinarian, morally upright part of us

Schools - contd Five (5) psychosexual stages of development marked by conflicts whose resolution go a long way to affect our adult personality. The stages are marked by erogenous zones; –O–Oral– receives pleasure from the mouth –A–Anal– pleasure from the anal region- toilet training –P–Phallic- awareness of whom they are – males or females (masturbation)*Oedipus and Electra complexes. –L–Latency – sexual pleasure subsides –G–Genital- early adulthood - marries

Oral Gratifications are centered on Sucking the nipple, thumb, pacifiers. It then moves on to Biting, chewing, cooing etc. WEANING – is the major source of conflict. FIXATION…. If the ind. was weaned too early or too late as an infant, he would become fixated. X’TICS include smoking, biting nails, chewing pencils, Wish to spend too much time on phone etc ; May become passive dependent and demanding Acc. To Morris & Maesto ; LACK OF CONFIDENCE, GULLIBILITY (easily tricked or deceived) and argumentative ANAL STAGE Is the 2ND stage of Freudian theory Gratification is derived from the ANAL Region. thus from their bowel movement/ elimination. Toilet training They may enjoy either the sensation of excreting feces or the sensation of holding back. In either ways they reduce tension in the infant. Source of conflict is the parents “WAIT” and the child’s “ I WOULD’NT” Fixation : Anal retentive, repulsive FIXATION goes through “life holding things back” being too orderly, stingy (giving unwillingly) and stubborn OR less commonly, may go to the opposite extreme –and becoming wasteful, messy and destructive. PHALLIC STAGE From Latin word phallus means “penis” Sexual organs become the prime source of gratification Children begin to play with their genitals - (genital fondling/ masturbation). They become more aware of what it means to be a male or female. If parents teach children that touching their genitals is shameful, they become fixated at the phallic stage Major Conflict…**Oedipus complex n Electra complex Child develops intense desire to replace the parent of the same sex and enjoy the affection of the opp’site sex parent Acc. to Freud, boys experiencing Oed. Complex are afraid of being castrated Child realizing that they may get punished by same sex parent identifyfor their incestuous wishes may identify with them. FIXATION: may occur if masturbation was strictly prohibited or allowed. Phallic Personality may occur ??? ….Arrogant; self centered and having over – estimated need for attention (NARCISSISM). 2. Obsession for body building, wearing expensive clothing n Women Conquering attitude (Womanizers). Following the so- called PREGENITAL STAGE, the child enters latency stage. repressedSexual urges of boys and girls become repressed during this stage. -Expresses a strong desire to associate with same sex peers, -a preference that strengthens the child’s sexual identity. They enter latency stage, which is a stage where they suppress their psychosexual interests. GENITAL STAGE (Puberty to adulthood) _ Beginning at puberty, young people take a strong sexual interest in people of the opposite sex. _ Here they express direct sexual urges towards socially acceptable substitutes, who often resemble their opposite sex parent. _ A healthy personality and sense of sexuality results when conflicts are successfully resolved at each stage of psychosexual development.

Schools – cont’d…Psychoanalytic To uncover the unconscious, Freud developed a technique called Psychoanalysis in which –P–Patient lies on a couch, recounts dreams, –S–Says whatever comes to mind (free association) –H–He’d help patients to sort through half remembered scenes, broken thought; reconstruct the past experiences that shape patient’s present behaviour. Criticisms?? –F–Freud’s Victorian contemporaries couldn’t believe His emphasis on sexuality His suggestion that we are unaware of our true motives And thus not entirely in control of our thoughts, desires and behaviour

Schools – contd…BEHAVIOURISM BEHAVIOURISM; –T–The name speak for itself; BEHAVIOUR. They argued that the whole idea of mental life (perception, reaction time, sensation, memory, unconscious etc) if could not be measure physically is all, SUPERSTITIOUS. MAIN SCHOLARS; include John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F Skinner, Thorndike etc. Psychology should study only observable, measurable Behaviour – Nothing more. –A–Anything that cannot be defined, located, measured cannot be an object of scientific study. (Read on Watson’s conditioning of little Albert to fear white rats) According to Watson, man is born TABULA RASA (Latin Meaning BLANK SLATE”)

BEHAVIOURISM Watson’s views known as behaviourism was based on an experiment that is well known and conducted by a Russian Physiologist; Ivan Pavlov.*** –Pavlov concluded that all behaviour is a learned response to some stimulus in the environment. He called this CONDITIONING. –Pavlov argued that all human behaviour could be attributable to learning. little Albert –To prove his point, Watson and Rayner (1920) conducted an experiment during which they conditioned “little Albert” to fear soft furry white Rats.

BEHAVIOURISM Albert was a secure happy baby who had no fear for soft, furry white rats –1 st given a white furry rat –Each time Albert reached out to touch the rat => loud noise? –Before long little Albert became terrified of white rats. Watson & Rayner concluded; that an infant is TABULA RASA (Latin meaning “Blank Slate”) on which experience may write virtually everything. WATSON’s DECLARATION *** (Write)….

BEHAVIOURISM – B.F SKINNERBEHAVIOURISM – B.F SKINNER B.F SkinnerAnother prominent scholar that comes to mind is B.F Skinner (became a leading advocate of behaviorism). –Like Watson, he believed that Psychologists should study only observable and measurable behaviour. –His primary interest were changing behaviour through conditioning and discovering natural laws of behaviour.

BEHAVIOURISM…cont’d B.F Skinner’s contributions –H–He was interested in changing behaviour through conditioning –H–He came up another term; R RR Reinforcement** Rewarded his subjects for behaving the way he wanted them to –H–He used all kinds of animals; Rats, pigeons etc…how did he study reinforcement? –H–He put these animals in cages/ box (skinner’s box) and allow them to explore –I–Initially the animals would accidentally press a bar or peck at a disk on the wall & a food pellet would drop –G–Gradually, the animals learn that pressing/ pecking brings food and so they would continue to do so…why? –B–Because they are rewarded/ reinforced

BEHAVIOURISM - SUMMARY Psychology is a purely objective experimental branch of the natural science aimed at the prediction and control of behaviour. Significance –Psychology should study only observable, measurable Behaviour – Nothing more. –Watson’s push for idealism to be discarded for realism. –He also helped in shifting American psychology from an over – concern with the subjective (self report) towards a more objective but mechanistic approaches.

Schools - GESTALT (WHOLE) PSYCHOLOGY This was a movement that originated from Germany. Associated Scholars include Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang. Kohler; Kurt Koffka who were all interested in perception. They maintain that when we perceive –W–We tend to perceive whole instead of individual parts –o–our minds play tricks on us. “Gestalt” in German language means “Whole” and when applied to perception refers to the tendency to see PATTERNS, to distinguish an object form its background, to complete a picture from a few cues. They vehemently opposed the Structuralists idea or attempt to break down perception and thought into their basic elements.

Schools - contd EXAMPLES TO BUTTRESS THE CONCEPT OF WHOLE is better than the sum of its parts. –Example; when we look at a tree, we see just; A tree and not a SERIES OF ISOLATED LEAVES and BRANCHES. –2nd Example – Movies are made of series of numerous static pictures and because our minds play tricks on us, we see movements. Why do we see movements? Anyway; Gestalt psychologist paved the way for modern study of perception.

EXISTENTIAL & HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES (Phenomenology) Existential comes from (Existence). These schools seek to help or enhance people’s existence. They guide people towards an inner sense of identity, which allows them take responsibility for their actions and in the process, achieve freedom. Humanistic Psychology (Third Force) is closely related to Existential Psychology because both schools insist that people must learn how to realize their human potential. That human beings are motivated by the need for self actualization The self concept (How we perceive ourselves/ self image is important) SCHOLARS; included –C–Carl Rogers and –A–Abraham Maslow.

ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908- 1970) Based on studies of historical figures, famous living individuals and friends whom he admired, Maslow theorized that all people are motivated to fulfill a hierarchy of needs, from the –physiological, –safety and security, –the need for belonging and love, and –esteem- related need for achievement, status, and recognition. It is only when these needs are met are we ready, willing and able to strive for self- actualization –the distinctly human need to become everything one is capable of becoming. Maslow proposed the most famous humanistic model of motivation called the “Hierarchy of Needs” and summarized it in the form of a Pyramid.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Basic Physiological Needs (Air, Food, water, sex etc)Basic Physiological Needs (Air, Food, water, sex etc) …In a clinical setting, when someone is struggling to breath…In a clinical setting, when someone is struggling to breath He will not consider other higher needs…He will not consider other higher needs… its up to you to ensure other needs are met.its up to you to ensure other needs are met. We seek any event/thing that provides security n Safety. Snake in the Lecture hall ?We seek any event/thing that provides security n Safety. Snake in the Lecture hall ? War in a country - will you remember you have a meeting with your local association?War in a country - will you remember you have a meeting with your local association? In a hospital settings, what are the safety measures – security.In a hospital settings, what are the safety measures – security. Why do we close our doors? Why do people go in for insurance etcWhy do we close our doors? Why do people go in for insurance etc Need to be loved, feel belonging to a group,Need to be loved, feel belonging to a group, a person, familya person, family - Why we experience distress when r/ships end- Why we experience distress when r/ships end Esteem needsEsteem needs -Need to achieve competence -Recognition and high esteem. Need for appreciation of beautyNeed for appreciation of beauty n art (Aesthetic need)n art (Aesthetic need) Why are you in school? SMSWhy are you in school? SMS Once all fundamental and psychological needsOnce all fundamental and psychological needs are met, we then seek to fulfill need forare met, we then seek to fulfill need for self actualization ; the ultimate??self actualization ; the ultimate?? THE NEED TO REALIZE ONCETHE NEED TO REALIZE ONCE UNIQUE POTENTIAL. Explain**UNIQUE POTENTIAL. Explain**

Schools - COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Was one of the newest fields of psychology. It began in the 1960’s when Behaviorists held the belief that mental processes cannot be studied scientifically; Cognitive psychologist, believe otherwise. That is to say that mental processes could and should be studied scientifically. TENET; They argue, although we cannot observe cognitive processes directly, we can observe behaviour and make inferences about the kinds of cognitive processes that underlie that behaviour. SCHOLARS; Look for Scholars – Read (Jean Piaget, Albert Ellis, Edward C.Tolman, etc.)

Note the following NB: School as used here refers to group of Psychologist who held/shared similar views and had similar approaches to the study of Psychology. The Psychologists who formed a school generally devoted themselves to common problems, using common systems to study the problems. Each school developed around one eminent thinker and in most cases, in and around a geographical area. Structuralism and functionalism died with the death of their leaders. Schools of Psychology and FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY – any differences? Yes… Read… Read …READ!!! ***READ!!!

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY No confusion with schools of Psychology –School as used here refers to group of Psychologist who held/shared similar views and had similar approaches to the study of Psychology. –Some of these have died with the death of the eminent thinker. Field of Psychology are areas of specialization which include –Clinical and Counseling; Experimental, Community; Developemental; Social; Personality; Educational; Industrial; Health; Forensic etc. Lets consider a few.

SELECTED AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION Clinical and Counseling –Most widely practiced –Diagnose and treat people with psychological problems. –Counseling Psyc. Treat less serious problems Experimental –Conduct research and use exp.tal strategy to study topics such as sensation and perception, memory, learning, motivation and emotion. Developmental –Concerned with how we become who we are, from conception to death –Study biol. & environmental factors that contribute to human development Social –Deals with people’s social interactions, relationships, social perceptions, and attitudes –We can understand and behaviour if we know something about how people function in groups Personality –Focus on relatively enduring traits and characteristics of individuals. School & Educational –Concerned with children’s learning and adjustment in schools Industrial/ Organizational –Deals with the workplace, focus on both the workers and organizations that employ them –Organizational structure n functions, interpersonal r/tions etc Health –Multidimensional approach to health that emphasize psychological factors, lifestyles, and the nature of the health care delivery Forensic - Applies psychological concepts to legal systems; eye

LEARNING THEORIES

Learning is a field of study in which the behaviorists have traditionally dominated. Learning is a field of study in which the behaviorists have traditionally dominated. The school of behaviorism rose to a large extent as a protest group against what they perceived as excessive emphasis on the unconscious by the Structuralists and the functionalists. The school of behaviorism rose to a large extent as a protest group against what they perceived as excessive emphasis on the unconscious by the Structuralists and the functionalists.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D The behaviorists insisted that psychology study only observable, measurable behaviour, without reference to unobservable mental processes. The behaviorists insisted that psychology study only observable, measurable behaviour, without reference to unobservable mental processes. Even within their ranks, there are divisions; we have the methodological behaviorists who maintain that psychology should study only the events that they can measure and observe – in other words stimulus and response. Even within their ranks, there are divisions; we have the methodological behaviorists who maintain that psychology should study only the events that they can measure and observe – in other words stimulus and response. Mental processes to them may well exist, but may not be included in their science; or if they include them, they cautiously inferred from behaviour. Mental processes to them may well exist, but may not be included in their science; or if they include them, they cautiously inferred from behaviour.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D The radical behaviorists on the contrary do not want to have anything to do with mental processes. B. F Skinner (1990) argued, when you say, “ I intend to…” you really mean “ I am about to…” The radical behaviorists on the contrary do not want to have anything to do with mental processes. B. F Skinner (1990) argued, when you say, “ I intend to…” you really mean “ I am about to…” That was a good way of saying that any statements alluding to intensions should be converted into a description of behaviour. That was a good way of saying that any statements alluding to intensions should be converted into a description of behaviour.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D In everyday usage/ everyday sense, learning often refers to formal methods of acquiring new knowledge or skills, such as learning in the classroom or learning to play an instrument. It is common to think of learning as something that takes place in school, but much of human learning occurs outside the classroom, and people continue to learn throughout their lives.

Even before they enter school, young children learn to walk, to talk, and to use their hands to manipulate toys, food, and other objects. Even before they enter school, young children learn to walk, to talk, and to use their hands to manipulate toys, food, and other objects. They use all of their senses to learn about the sights, sounds, tastes, and smells in their environments. They use all of their senses to learn about the sights, sounds, tastes, and smells in their environments. They learn how to interact with their parents, siblings, friends, and other people important to their world. When they enter school, children learn basic academic subjects such as reading, writing, and mathematics. They learn how to interact with their parents, siblings, friends, and other people important to their world. When they enter school, children learn basic academic subjects such as reading, writing, and mathematics.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D They also continue to learn a great deal outside the classroom. They learn which behaviors are likely to be rewarded and which are likely to be punished. They learn social skills for interacting with other children. After they finish school, people must learn to adapt to the many major changes that affect their lives, such as getting married, raising children, and finding and keeping a job..

Because learning continues throughout our lives and affects almost everything we do, the study of learning is important in many different fields. Because learning continues throughout our lives and affects almost everything we do, the study of learning is important in many different fields. Teachers need to understand the best ways to educate children. Psychologists, Optometrists, social workers, criminologists, Doctors and other human-service workers need to understand how certain experiences change people’s behaviors. Teachers need to understand the best ways to educate children. Psychologists, Optometrists, social workers, criminologists, Doctors and other human-service workers need to understand how certain experiences change people’s behaviors. Employers, politicians, and advertisers make use of the principles of learning to influence the behavior of workers, voters, and consumers. Employers, politicians, and advertisers make use of the principles of learning to influence the behavior of workers, voters, and consumers.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D Human learning involves higher- level learning involving memory, comprehension, language, and other information- rich mental processes. Human learning involves higher- level learning involving memory, comprehension, language, and other information- rich mental processes. In Psychology, however, the topic of learning is much broader, but in this lecture we shall be concerned with a more basic form of learning known as conditioning. In Psychology, however, the topic of learning is much broader, but in this lecture we shall be concerned with a more basic form of learning known as conditioning. what is learning? what is learning?

DEFINITION OF LEARNING Various definitions. For e g. Coon (1992)*** defines learning as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that can be attributed to experience” p. 189. Various definitions. For e g. Coon (1992)*** defines learning as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that can be attributed to experience” p. 189. Notice that this definition excludes temporary changes caused by motivation, fatigue, maturation, disease injury, drugs and so forth” Notice that this definition excludes temporary changes caused by motivation, fatigue, maturation, disease injury, drugs and so forth” Morris and Maesto (1999) define it as “a process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour, p 166. Morris and Maesto (1999) define it as “a process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour, p 166.

LEARNING DEFINITION – CONT’D NB: potential behaviour from Morris & Maesto NB: potential behaviour from Morris & Maesto Hockenbury and Hockenbury (2001) see learning as a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behaviour or knowledge as a result of an individual’s experience, p 163. Hockenbury and Hockenbury (2001) see learning as a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behaviour or knowledge as a result of an individual’s experience, p 163. Kassin (2001; 174) referred to learning as a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behaviour that comes about as a result of experience. Kassin (2001; 174) referred to learning as a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behaviour that comes about as a result of experience.

KEYWORDS Relatively Permanent Change Relatively Permanent Change Experience and Experience and Behaviour/Potential behaviour Behaviour/Potential behaviour It implies that all sorts of events/experience could result in changes in behaviour but not all would be regarded as relatively permanent. It implies that all sorts of events/experience could result in changes in behaviour but not all would be regarded as relatively permanent. Some of these include fatigue, maturation (an automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of passage of time), drugs injury. Some of these include fatigue, maturation (an automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of passage of time), drugs injury. All these may produce change in behaviour but with particular reference to time (relatively permanent etc), they cannot pass test by standards of learning definition. All these may produce change in behaviour but with particular reference to time (relatively permanent etc), they cannot pass test by standards of learning definition.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D Learning is closely related to memory, which is the storage of information in the brain. –Psychologists who study memory are interested in how the brain stores knowledge, where this storage takes place, and how the brain later retrieves knowledge when we need it. In contrast, psychologists who study learning are more interested in behavior and how behavior changes as a result of a person’s experiences.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D  There are many forms of learning, ranging from simple to complex. ( More complex forms of learning include learning languages, concepts, and motor skills).  Simple forms of learning involve a single stimulus (e.g.. habituation). –A stimulus is anything perceptible to the senses, such as a sight, sound, smell, touch, or taste.  In a form of learning known as classical conditioning, people learn to associate two stimuli that occur in sequence, such as lightning followed by thunder.  In operant conditioning, people learn by forming an association between a behavior and its consequences (reward or punishment).  People and animals can also learn by observation— that is, by watching others perform behaviors.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D Habituation, one of the simplest types of learning, is the tendency to become familiar with a stimulus after repeated exposure to it. Habituation, one of the simplest types of learning, is the tendency to become familiar with a stimulus after repeated exposure to it. A common example of habituation occurs in the orienting response, in which a person’s attention is captured by a loud or sudden stimulus. A common example of habituation occurs in the orienting response, in which a person’s attention is captured by a loud or sudden stimulus. For example, a person who moves to a house on a busy street may initially be distracted (an orienting response) every time a loud vehicle drives by. For example, a person who moves to a house on a busy street may initially be distracted (an orienting response) every time a loud vehicle drives by. After living in the house for some time, however, the person will no longer be distracted by the street noise— the person becomes habituated to it and the orienting response disappears After living in the house for some time, however, the person will no longer be distracted by the street noise— the person becomes habituated to it and the orienting response disappears

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D Despite its simplicity, habituation is a very useful type of learning. Despite its simplicity, habituation is a very useful type of learning. Because our environments are full of sights and sounds, we would waste a tremendous amount of time and energy if we paid attention to every stimulus each time we encountered it. Because our environments are full of sights and sounds, we would waste a tremendous amount of time and energy if we paid attention to every stimulus each time we encountered it. Habituation allows us to ignore repetitive, unimportant stimuli. Habituation occurs in nearly all organisms, from human beings to animals with very simple nervous systems. Habituation allows us to ignore repetitive, unimportant stimuli. Habituation occurs in nearly all organisms, from human beings to animals with very simple nervous systems. Even some one-celled organisms will habituate to a light, sound, or chemical stimulus that is presented repeatedly. Even some one-celled organisms will habituate to a light, sound, or chemical stimulus that is presented repeatedly.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D Sensitization, another simple form of learning, is the increase that occurs in an organism’s responsiveness to stimuli following an especially intense or irritating stimulus. For example, a sea snail that receives a strong electric shock will afterward withdraw its gill more strongly than usual in response to a simple touch. If your electric iron gives you a shock what happens to your response/ sensitivity to electric irons? Depending on the intensity and duration of the original stimulus, the period of increased responsiveness can last from several seconds to several days.

LEARNING THEORIES CONDITIONING & SOCIAL LEARNING

Consider the following – how do you explain them? Situation I Situation I Susie enjoys opening the door whenever the doorbell goes.One evening; she answered the doorbell and at the door was Julie who had dressed up in a costume like a monster. Susie enjoys opening the door whenever the doorbell goes.One evening; she answered the doorbell and at the door was Julie who had dressed up in a costume like a monster. Susie got so terrified that she nearly passed out when she screaming and running back to lock herself up in her room upstairs. Later she got terrified whenever the doorbell rung. Susie got so terrified that she nearly passed out when she screaming and running back to lock herself up in her room upstairs. Later she got terrified whenever the doorbell rung. Scenario II Scenario II Kofi is a cancer patient receiving treatment at the KATH Cancer center. Before each Chemo- therapy session, he is given a bowl of ice cream. The chemotherapy makes Kofi Nauseated. Now just seeing the bowl of ice makes him feel nauseated…ANSWER?

Consider the following – how do you explain them? Question!! Question!! Why do most advertisers use well known peoples such as footballers, actors, singers etc. Why do most advertisers use well known peoples such as footballers, actors, singers etc. Abedi Pele loves…. Abedi Pele loves…. Michael Powell …Guinness the power. Michael Powell …Guinness the power. Bob Santo??? Bob Santo??? In her anger, Esther kicked the machine while Gabriel was still observing. In her anger, Esther kicked the machine while Gabriel was still observing. Scenario IV Subsequently Esther kicked the machine anytime it delayed in dispensing the drink? Since Gabriel admired Esther so much, he adopted her behaviour o obtain drinks from delaying vending machines. Explanation??

ANSWER??? LEARNING THEORIES SUBJECT OF OUR LECTURES

INTRODUCTION & DEFINITIONS SIMPLE FORMS OF LEARNING –Habituation –Sensitization CLASSICAL CONDITIONING…Ivan Pavlov –Pavlov’s experiment –Principles of classical conditioning Acquisition, Extinction, Generalization & Discrimination Pavlovian –Applications of classical/ Pavlovian principles

PIX. OF IVAN PATROVICH PAVLOV

OVERVIEW – LEARNING THEORIES OPERANT CONDITIONING...E. L. Thorndike/ Skinner –Thorndike's experiment & Laws of effect –B.F Skinner’s research –Principles of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Punishment Shaping Extinction Generalization & Discrimination Skinnerian –Applications of operant/ Skinnerian conditioning

PIX. OF SKINNER / THORNDIKE

OVERVIEW – LEARNING THEORIES OBSERVATIONAL/ VICARIOUS LEARNING/ MODELING… Albert Bandura –B–Bandura’s Experiment –B–Bandura’s theory of Imitation\ –F–Factor’s affecting imitation –D–Does TV have influence on behaviour acquisition

PIX. OF ALBERT BANDURA

LEARNING THEORIES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

DEFINING – key words CLASSICAL –name Ivan Pavlov gave to the type of learning he heuristically discovered CONDITIONING –Refers to the fact that the learner is “conditioned”; meaning the learner forms an association, usually between a stimulus and a response or between two stimuli.

LEARNING THEORIES – CONT’D Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an animal’s natural response to one object or sensory stimulus transfers to another stimulus (neutral). –This illustration shows how a dog can learn to salivate to the sound of a tuning fork, This was an experiment first carried out in the early 1900s by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. –For conditioning to occur, the pairing of the food with the tuning fork (step 3 in the illustration) must be repeated many times, so that the dog eventually learns to associate the two items.

L. THEORIES – Pavlov’s experiment Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered a major type of learning, classical conditioning, by accident while conducting experiments on digestion in the early 1900s. He devoted the rest of his life to discovering the underlying principles of classical conditioning.

L. THEORIES – Pavlov’s experiment

Pavlov was studying how saliva aids the digestive process. –He would give a dog some food and measure the amount of saliva the dog produced while it ate the meal. After the dog had gone through this procedure a few times, however, it would begin to salivate before receiving any food. –Pavlov reasoned that some new stimulus, such as the experimenter in his white coat, had become associated with the food and produced the response of salivation in the dog. –Pavlov spent the rest of his life studying this basic type of associative learning, which is now called classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning.

Consider the following – how do you explain them? Situation I Susie enjoys opening the door whenever the doorbell goes.One evening; she answered the doorbell and at the door was Julie who had dressed up in a costume like a monster. Susie got so terrified that she nearly passed out when she screaming and running back to lock herself up in her room upstairs. Later she got terrified whenever the doorbell rung. Scenario II –Kofi is a cancer patient receiving treatment at the KATH Cancer center. Before each Chemotherapy session, he is given a bowl of ice cream. The chemotherapy makes Kofi Nauseated. Now just seeing the bowl of ice makes him feel nauseated. –ANSWER?

SOLUTION USING CLASSICAL LEARNING THEORY PARADIGM I Before conditioningBefore conditioning –Doorbell  No fear in Susie NS –Monster costume  fear UCS UCR During Conditioning (Pairing)During Conditioning (Pairing) –Doorbell + Julie’s Monster costume (UCS)  Fear in Susie (UCR) After Conditioning (Pairing)After Conditioning (Pairing) –Doorbell alone  fear in Susie CSCR PARADIGM IIPARADIGM II Before conditioningBefore conditioning –Bowl of ice  No Nausea NS –Chemotherapy  Nausea UCS UCR During Conditioning (Pairing) –Bowl of ice + Chemotherapy (UCS)  Makes Kofi nauseated (UCR) After Conditioning (Pairing) –Bowl of ice alone (CS)  Makes Kofi feel nauseated (CR)

Principles of Classical Conditioning Following his initial discovery, Pavlov spent more than three decades studying the processes underlying classical conditioning. He and his associates identified four main processes: –a–acquisition, – extinction, –g–generalization, and –d–discrimination.

AQCUISITION – CONT’D The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the conditioned response - for example, the dog learning to salivate at the sound of the bell. Several factors influence the acquisition of CRs. Among them are; sequence –The sequence of CS – UCS presentation, intensity –The intensity of the UCS and number of times –The number of times the CS and UCS are paired

AQCUISITION – CONT’D

SEQUENCE OF CS – UCS PRESENTATION –Influence the strength of the conditioning. –Up to this point we have simply indicated that that the CS should precede the US. (Imprecise). –Rather several sequences for CS – UCS presentation are possible. Trace conditioning Delayed conditioning Simultaneous conditioning Backward conditioning

AQCUISITION – CONT’D TRACE CONDITIONINGTRACE CONDITIONING Cs comes on and goes be4 the UCS is presented memory traceHere the UCS is associated with a memory trace of the CS, not with the CS itself. This produces weaker conditioning, but not as weak as simultaneous or backward conditioning.

AQCUISITION – CONT’D DELAYED CONDITIONINGDELAYED CONDITIONING Comes and stays on, and then the UCS is presented so that they occur together for some time The presentation of UCS is delayed for a specific interval after the CS has been presented Researchers found that delayed conditioning for a short interval produces a strong conditioning, whereas longer delays between the CS & UCS produce weak conditioning. Example, they found 450miliseconds is the optimal interval for conditioning the eyelid closure reflex. (One millisecond = 1/1000 of a second)

AQCUISITION – CONT’D SIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONINGSIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONING CS comes on exactly the same time as the US. Example a sound of a metronome and the food powder would be presented to the dog simultaneously This type results in a weak conditioning.

AQCUISITION – CONT’D BACKWARD CONDITIONINGBACKWARD CONDITIONING CS comes on after the UCS. Example the dog is given food powder and thereafter hear the sound of the metronome Results in a very weak, if any conditioning at all.

AQCUISITION – CONT’D half a secondConditioning occurs most quickly when the conditioned stimulus (the bell) precedes the unconditioned stimulus (the food) by about half a second. weakerConditioning takes longer and the response is weaker when there is a long delay between the presentation of the CS and the UCS follows conditioning seldom occursIf the conditioned stimulus follows the unconditioned stimulus—for example, if the dog receives the food before the bell is rung — conditioning seldom occurs.

AQCUISITION – CONT’D STRENGTH OF CONDTSTRENGTH OF CONDT The stronger the UCS, the stronger the conditioning –(Holloway & Domjan, 1993) When Pavlov gave his dogs a small amount of food powder, they did not salivate as much as he gave them a large amount of food powder. –Stronger USCs elicit stronger URs; –Weaker UCSs produce weaker URs. NUMBER OF (CS- UCS) PAIRINGSNUMBER OF (CS- UCS) PAIRINGS The more the CS and the UCS are paired together, the stronger the CR becomes. –If you have eaten at an exceptionally fine restaurant several times, your CRs to the sight of the restaurant and its menu will be stronger than would be if you had eaten there only once. Always True?? ***

EXTINTION & SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY Once learned, a conditioned response is not necessarily permanent. extinction repeatedly presenting withoutThe term extinction is used to describe the elimination of the conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (bell) without the unconditioned stimulus (food). extinguishIf a dog has learned to salivate at the sound of a bell, an experimenter can gradually extinguish the dog’s response by repeatedly ringing the bell without presenting food afterward. Does it mean that the dog has forgotten what its learnt?

EXTINTION AND S. RECOVERY– cont’d Extinction does not mean, however, that the dog has simply unlearned or forgotten the association between the bell and the food. –After extinction, if the experimenter lets a few hours pass and then rings the bell again, the dog will usually salivate at the sound of the bell once again. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERYSPONTANEOUS RECOVERY Graph –The reappearance of an extinguished response after some time has passed is called spontaneous recovery. Graph

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION After an animal has learned a conditioned response to one stimulus, it may also respond to similar stimuli without further training. –If a child is bitten by a large black dog, the child may fear not only that dog, but other large dogs. –If your lecturer slaps you and you see someone who resembles him….? generalizationThis phenomenon is called generalization. –Less similar stimuli will usually produce less generalization. For example, the child may show little fear of smaller dogs.

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION The opposite of generalization is discrimination, –In this, an individual learns to produce a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus that is similar. –For example, a child may show a fear response to freely roaming dogs, but may show no fear when a dog is on a leash or confined to a pen. How do we apply these principles to human? **

APPLICATION OF CLASSICAL PRINCIPLES white ratIn an infamous 1921 experiment, John B. Watson and his research assistant Rosalie Rayner conditioned a baby named little Albert (11 month old baby) to fear a small white rat. –How did this happen? sight of the ratloud noise – by pairing the sight of the rat with a loud noise. it showed for the first time that humans can learn to fear seemingly unimportant stimuli when the stimuli are associated with unpleasant experiences.

APPLICATION – CONT’D The experiment also suggested that classical conditioning accounts for some cases of phobias, –Phobia is an irrational or excessive fears of specific objects or situations. Psychologists now know that classical conditioning explains many emotional responses such as –happiness, –excitement, –anger, and –Anxiety, that people have to specific stimuli.

APPLICATION – CONT’D For example, a child who experiences excitement on a roller coaster may learn to feel excited just at the sight of a roller coaster. For an adult who finds a letter from a close friend in the mailbox, the mere sight of the return address on the envelope may elicit feelings of joy and warmth.

APPLICATION – CONT’D alcoholismPsychologists use classical conditioning procedures to treat phobias and other unwanted behaviors, such as alcoholism and addictions. –In one treatment for alcoholism, patients drink an alcoholic beverage and then ingest a drug that produces nausea. –Eventually they feel nauseous at the sight or smell of alcohol and stops drinking it. To treat phobias of specific objects, the therapist gradually and repeatedly presents the feared object to the patient while the patient r rr relaxes. Through e ee extinction, the patient loses his or her fear of the object. The effectiveness of these therapies varies depending on the individual and on the problem behavior

APPLICATION – Contemporary views Modern research has also shown that conditioning does not always require a close pairing of the two stimuli. In taste-aversion learning, people can develop disgust for a specific food if they become sick after eating it, even if the illness begins several hours after eating. Psychologists today also recognize that classical conditioning does not automatically occur whenever two stimuli are repeatedly paired. –For instance, suppose that an experimenter conditions a dog to salivate to a light by repeatedly pairing the light with food. –Next, the experimenter repeatedly pairs both the light and a tone with food. When the experimenter presents the tone by itself, the dog will show little or no conditioned response (salivation), because the tone provides no new information. The light already allows the dog to predict that food will be coming.***

LEARNING THEORIES OPERANT CONDITIONING

DEFINING OPERANT/ SKINNERIAN/ INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING The type of learning in which behaviors are emitted (in the presence of specific stimuli) to earn reward or avoid punishment Or a form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour produce changes in the probability of behavior's occurrence… Why operant? –Operant; describes the organism’s behaviour – behaviour operates on the environment and the environment in turn operate on behaviour. emitted behaviour –One essential element in operant conditioning is emitted behaviour and this makes it different from classical conditioning –Thus, unlike classical conditioning in which a response is automatically triggered by some stimulus, (food triggers salivation) response is spontaneous in operant, (voluntarily studying Behavioral Science to gain marks)

OPERANT CONDITIONING – cont’d –Voluntary spontaneous actions are called Operant behaviors because they “OPERATE ON THE ENVIRONMENT” –Operant conditioning is usually better than classical at explaining VOLUNTARY behaviour Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning requires action on the part of the learner unlike classical conditioning, in which the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are presented regardless of what the learner does. Operant conditioning requires action on the part of the learner. –A boy will not get his snack unless he first cleans up his room. So the term operant conditioning refers to the fact that the learner must operate, or perform a certain behavior, before receiving a reward or punishment.

OPERANT CONDITIONING- cont’d Edward Lee Thorndike was one of the earliest American psychologists to scientifically study animal behaviour. –Around the turn of the century, while Pavlov was busy with his dogs, Thorndike (1898) was using a simple wooden box cage “Puzzle box”*** to study how cats learn. Procedure with hungry cats**** –RESULTS –RESULTS: Indicated that in the beginning it took the cats quite a while to discover how to open the door. But on each trial it took them less time, until eventually they could escape from the box in almost no time at all. –Thorndike was the pioneer in studying this kind of learning which involved making a certain response because of the consequences it brought. (NAME: Operant/ Instrumental Conditioning).

THORDIKES PUZZLE BOX

THORDIKES PUZZLE BOX – cont’d by accidentHe found that the first time an animal entered the puzzle box, it usually took a long time to make the response required to open the door. Eventually, however, it would make the appropriate response by accident and receive its reward: escape and food. As Thorndike placed the same animal in the puzzle box again and again, it would make the correct response more and more quickly. Soon it would take the animal just a few seconds to earn its reward.

OPERANT CONDITIONING – cont’d consequenceA second essential element in operant conditioning is the consequence following a behaviour. –Thorndike's cats gained freedom and a piece of fish for escaping from the puzzle boxes. –Your dogs may receive food for sitting on command –A child may receive praise; a chance to ride the bike or a chance to watch TV for helping in the kitchen REINFORCERSConsequences like these increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated are called REINFORCERS PUNISHERSIn contrast, consequences that decrease the chances that a behaviour will be repeated are called PUNISHERS

LAW OF EFFECT/ PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT Thorndike summarized the influence of consequences in his LAW OF EFFECT as follows; –Behaviour that brings about a satisfying effect (reinforcement) is apt to be performed again whereas –A behaviour that brings a negative effect (punishment) is apt to be suppressed Another name for law of effect is PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT by contemporary Psychologists. –Sometimes its difficult to tell whether a particular consequence will be reinforcing or punishing. Why? Candy/ toffees might be reinforcing to all children. Some may not like it, so for them it will not be rewarding. Some children whom candy is initially reinforcing may eat too much of it, until it becomes neutral to them or even punishing. –We must therefore be careful when identifying consequences as reinforcers or punishers (Remember functional analysis)

SUMMARY – LAW OF EFFECT Behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future. Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future.

OPERANT CONDITIONING- cont’d In other words In other words This law states that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future. This law states that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future. Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future. Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future. If we were to judge by taste, then consumers of Guinness will consume less but that is not the case, why? If we were to judge by taste, then consumers of Guinness will consume less but that is not the case, why? Obtain some reward Obtain some reward Social learning ( desire to be like Michael Powell) Social learning ( desire to be like Michael Powell) Social influence (acceptance) Social influence (acceptance)

OPERANT CONDITIONING- cont’d –For example, if a mother starts giving a boy his favorite snack every day that he cleans up his room, before long the boy may spend some time each day cleaning his room in anticipation of the snack. –In this example, the boy’s room-cleaning behavior increases because it is followed by a reward or reinforcer.

SKINNER’S RESEARCH

SKINNER’S RESEARCH Skinner Box Skinner Box American psychologist B. F. Skinner designed an apparatus, now called a Skinner box, that allowed him to formulate important principles of animal learning. American psychologist B. F. Skinner designed an apparatus, now called a Skinner box, that allowed him to formulate important principles of animal learning. An animal (rat, pigeon etc) placed inside the box is rewarded with a small bit of food each time it makes the desired response, such as pressing a lever or pecking a key. An animal (rat, pigeon etc) placed inside the box is rewarded with a small bit of food each time it makes the desired response, such as pressing a lever or pecking a key. A device outside the box records the animal’s responses. A device outside the box records the animal’s responses.

SKINNER’S RESEARCH Like Thorndike’s puzzle box, the Skinner box was a barren chamber in which an animal could earn food by making simple responses, such as pressing a lever or a circular response key Like Thorndike’s puzzle box, the Skinner box was a barren chamber in which an animal could earn food by making simple responses, such as pressing a lever or a circular response key The Skinner box differed from the puzzle box in three main ways: The Skinner box differed from the puzzle box in three main ways: (1) upon making the desired response, the animal received food but did not escape from the chamber; (1) upon making the desired response, the animal received food but did not escape from the chamber; (2) the box delivered only a small amount of food for each response, so that many reinforcers could be delivered in a single test session; and (3) the operant response required very little effort, so an animal could make hundreds or thousands of responses per hour. Because of these changes, Skinner could collect much more data, and he could observe how changing the pattern of food delivery affected the speed and pattern of an animal’s behavior.

SKINNER’S RESEARCH Skinner became famous not just for his research with animals, but also for his controversial claim that the principles of learning he discovered using the Skinner box also applied to the behavior of people in everyday life. Skinner became famous not just for his research with animals, but also for his controversial claim that the principles of learning he discovered using the Skinner box also applied to the behavior of people in everyday life. Skinner acknowledged that many factors influence human behavior, including heredity, basic types of learning such as classical conditioning, and complex learned behaviors such as language. Skinner acknowledged that many factors influence human behavior, including heredity, basic types of learning such as classical conditioning, and complex learned behaviors such as language. he however maintained that rewards and punishments control the great majority of human behaviors, and that the principles of operant conditioning can explain these behaviors. he however maintained that rewards and punishments control the great majority of human behaviors, and that the principles of operant conditioning can explain these behaviors.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Main principles to be considered are Main principles to be considered are reinforcement, reinforcement, punishment, punishment, shaping, shaping, extinction, extinction, discrimination, and discrimination, and generalization. generalization. REINFORCEMENT Means “to strengthen” Is a consequence that increases the probability that a behaviour will occur …Halonen and Santrock (1999:163) Or simply any process/ event that strengthens a particular behavior—that is, increases the chances that the behavior will occur again.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING  TWO TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT –POSITIVE, & NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENTS  Positive Reinforcement, –positive reinforcement, is a method of strengthening behavior by following it with a pleasant stimulus.  Thus, a behavior is strengthened because a pleasant/ pleasurable stimulus followed it.  In experiments by Thorndike and Skinner; bar pressing and pecking behaviors are followed by food pellets which are positive  In human, positive reinforcers include basic items such as food, drink, sex, and physical comfort.  Other positive reinforcers include material possessions, money, friendship, love, praise, attention, and success in one’s career.

!!PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING  Depending on the circumstances, positive reinforcement can strengthen either desirable or undesirable behaviors. –Children may work hard at home or at school because of the praise they receive from parents and teachers for good performance. –However, they may also disrupt a class, try dangerous stunts, or start smoking because these behaviors lead to attention and approval from their peers.  Negative reinforcement is a method of strengthening a behavior by following it with the removal or omission of an unpleasant stimulus.  There are two types of negative reinforcement: –Escape and –Avoidance –ve reinforcements  In escape (already present), performing a particular behavior leads to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. –For example, if a person with a headache tries a new pain reliever and the headache quickly disappears, this person will probably use the medication again the next time a headache occur

PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING  Another e.g. for escape is that your father nags at you until you get tired & you clean the garage. –Your (garage cleaning) response removes the unpleasant stimulus (nagging) –Torture works the same way… some lawyers or interrogators use it a lot –Medical Students learn in order to avoid failure or learn in order to obtain distinction… how do you classify the statement??  In Avoidance (not present yet), people perform a behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences. –For example, drivers may take side streets to avoid congested intersections, –citizens may pay their taxes to avoid fines and penalties, –and students may do their homework to avoid detention.

ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS – Reinforcements (+ve & -ve)  +ve reinforcement –BEHAVIOUR  Dress well –CONSEQUENCE  Compliments from loved ones/ friends –FUTURE BEHAVIOUR  Dressing behaviour increases  -ve reinforcement –BEHAVIOUR  Taking Paracetamol  Paying taxes –CONSEQUENCE  Pain removed  Avoiding finds/ prosecution –FUTURE BEHAVIOUR  Para taking behaviour increases  Tax paying increases

How do you distinguish between Reinforcement and Punishment? Before then, what is Punishment?

PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING  Punishment –Is any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behaviour will recur. –Or any event which when made contingent on a behaviour decreases the likelihood that that behaviour will recur.  there are two kinds of punishment, positive and negative.  Positive punishment involves reducing a behavior by delivering an unpleasant stimulus if the behavior occurs. –Parents use positive punishment when they spank, scold, or shout at children for bad behavior.  Societies use positive punishment when they fine or imprison people who break the law. (As if there are no rule in the universities !!)  Negative punishment, also called omission, –involves reducing a behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus if the behavior occurs. –Parents’ tactics of grounding teenagers or taking away various privileges because of bad behavior are examples of negative punishment. –Is punishment an effective means of controlling behaviour?

PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING  Experiments have shown that, when used properly, punishment can be a powerful and effective method for reducing behavior.  There are however some disadvantages; –become angry, aggressive, or have other negative emotional reactions. –Does not teach the right behaviour –May have some negative physical problems (hurt)  Punishment may eliminate desirable behaviors along with undesirable ones. –For example, a child who is scolded for making an error in the classroom may not raise his or her hand again.  May sometimes only minimize it and not eliminate it (e.g. Drivers & highway police patrols).  For these and other reasons, many psychologists recommend that punishment be used to control behavior only when there is no realistic alternative.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN REINFORMENT AND PUNISHMENT  REINFORCEMENT –Whether positive or negative results in an increase in behaviour.  PUNISHMENT –Whether negative or positive results in decrease in behaviour

PRINCIPLES CONT’D; … SHAPING  Shaping is a reinforcement technique that is used to teach animals or people behaviors that they have never performed before. –The method (Successive approximation) is used whereby the teacher begins by reinforcing a response the learner can perform easily, and then gradually requires more and more difficult responses –For example, to teach a rat to press a lever that is over its head, the trainer can first reward any upward head movement, then an upward movement of at least one inch, then two inches, and so on, until the rat reaches the lever. –Skinner used it to teach pigeons to play pin- pong  Psychologists have used shaping to teach children with severe mental retardation –to speak by first rewarding any sounds they make, and then gradually requiring sounds that more and more closely resemble the words of the teacher.  Animal trainers at circuses and theme parks use shaping to teach –elephants to stand on one leg, –tigers to balance on a ball, & –killer whales and dolphins to jump through hoops.

PRINCIPLES CONT’D; … SHAPING

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION, DISCRIMINATION & EXTINCTION SAME AS IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING … PLEASE READ !!!

APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant conditioning techniques have practical applications in many areas of human life. Operant conditioning techniques have practical applications in many areas of human life. Parents who understand the basic principles of operant conditioning can reinforce their children’s appropriate behaviors and punish inappropriate ones, and they can use generalization and discrimination techniques to teach which behaviors are appropriate in particular situations. Parents who understand the basic principles of operant conditioning can reinforce their children’s appropriate behaviors and punish inappropriate ones, and they can use generalization and discrimination techniques to teach which behaviors are appropriate in particular situations. In the classroom, many teachers reinforce good academic performance with small rewards or privileges. In the classroom, many teachers reinforce good academic performance with small rewards or privileges. Companies have used it to improve attendance, productivity, and job safety among their employees. Companies have used it to improve attendance, productivity, and job safety among their employees.

APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Behavior therapists use shaping techniques to teach basic job skills to adults with mental retardation. Behavior therapists use shaping techniques to teach basic job skills to adults with mental retardation. Therapists use reinforcement techniques to teach self- care skills to people with severe mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, Therapists use reinforcement techniques to teach self- care skills to people with severe mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, and use punishment and extinction to reduce aggressive and antisocial behaviors by these individuals. and use punishment and extinction to reduce aggressive and antisocial behaviors by these individuals. Psychologists also use operant conditioning techniques to treat drug addictions, stuttering, sexual disorders, marital problems, impulsive spending, eating disorders, and many other behavioral problems Psychologists also use operant conditioning techniques to treat drug addictions, stuttering, sexual disorders, marital problems, impulsive spending, eating disorders, and many other behavioral problems

APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Behavior Modification, psychological methods for treating maladjustment and for changing observable behavior patterns. Behavior Modification, psychological methods for treating maladjustment and for changing observable behavior patterns. A landmark event for behavior modification took place when Pavlov's conditioning principles were extended to humans. A landmark event for behavior modification took place when Pavlov's conditioning principles were extended to humans. In 1920 the American psychologists John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner reported an experimental study in which an 11-month-old baby who had previously played with a white laboratory rat was conditioned to be fearful of the rat by associating a loud noise with the animal, a process known as pairing. In 1920 the American psychologists John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner reported an experimental study in which an 11-month-old baby who had previously played with a white laboratory rat was conditioned to be fearful of the rat by associating a loud noise with the animal, a process known as pairing.

APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING The psychologist Mary Cover Jones later performed experiments designed to reduce already established fears in children. The psychologist Mary Cover Jones later performed experiments designed to reduce already established fears in children. She found two methods particularly effective: She found two methods particularly effective: (1) associating a feared object with a different stimulus capable of arousing a positive reaction, and (1) associating a feared object with a different stimulus capable of arousing a positive reaction, and (2) placing the child who feared a certain object with other children who did not. (2) placing the child who feared a certain object with other children who did not. This method is in use today by lots and lots of therapists This method is in use today by lots and lots of therapists

APPLICATION OF LEARNING THEORIES Psychologists questioned the effectiveness of psychotherapy for treating disturbed young adults, especially those with disabling fear reactions. Psychologists questioned the effectiveness of psychotherapy for treating disturbed young adults, especially those with disabling fear reactions. To deal with anxiety disturbances, they devised treatment procedures based on Pavlov's classical- conditioning model. To deal with anxiety disturbances, they devised treatment procedures based on Pavlov's classical- conditioning model. Among them are Among them are systematic desensitization, systematic desensitization, Aversion therapy, and Aversion therapy, and Biofeedback Biofeedback Systematic desensitization, Systematic desensitization, attempts to treat disturbances having identifiable sources, such as a paralyzing fear of closed spaces. This method usually involves Drawing up a hierarchy of fears training the individual to relax in the while the patient imagines the fear-producing stimuli. The therapist assumes that the anxiety reaction will be replaced gradually with the new relaxation response; this is called reciprocal inhibition. …classical

APPLICATION OF LEARNING THEORIES Aversion therapy is used to break disabling bad habits. Aversion therapy is used to break disabling bad habits. An aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock, is given together with the “bad habit,” such as an alcoholic drink. An aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock, is given together with the “bad habit,” such as an alcoholic drink. Repeated pairings result in changing the values of such stimuli from positive attraction to repulsion… operant Repeated pairings result in changing the values of such stimuli from positive attraction to repulsion… operant Biofeedback is most often used in treating disturbed behavior that has a physical basis. Biofeedback is most often used in treating disturbed behavior that has a physical basis. It provides an individual with information about an ongoing physiological process such as blood pressure or heartbeat rate. By the use of a mechanical device (machine), indications of moment-to-moment variations in these bodily functioning can be observed and monitored by the individual. The therapist may provide some reward for desirable changes, such as a decrease in blood pressure… classical

APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Applied behavior analysis is used to develop educational and treatment techniques for individuals people in need Applied behavior analysis is used to develop educational and treatment techniques for individuals people in need Example of these individuals may include Example of these individuals may include retarded or disturbed children in a school or residential setting, retarded or disturbed children in a school or residential setting, or adults in a psychiatric hospital or rehabilitation center. or adults in a psychiatric hospital or rehabilitation center. Five essential steps must be considered: Five essential steps must be considered: (1) deciding what the individual can do to ameliorate the problem; (2) devising a program to weaken undesirable behavior and strengthen desirable substitute behavior; (3) carrying out the treatment program according to behavioral principles; (4) keeping careful and objective records; and (5) altering the program if progress can thereby be improved.

ASSIGNMENTS Compare classical and operant conditionings Compare classical and operant conditionings Summarize the Cognitive views/ interpretations of Learning theories Summarize the Cognitive views/ interpretations of Learning theories

SHAPING & CHAINING CHAINING BEHAVIOUR CHAINING BEHAVIOUR To produce more complex sequence of behaviour, say to produce a whole sequence of behaviors, Psychologists use a procedure called chaining. The process is similar to shaping To produce more complex sequence of behaviour, say to produce a whole sequence of behaviors, Psychologists use a procedure called chaining. The process is similar to shaping what the trainer does is this; what the trainer does is this; First, the animal learns the final behaviour for some reinforcements; then it learns the next- to- last behaviour, which is reinforced by the opportunity to perform the final behaviour. And so on. First, the animal learns the final behaviour for some reinforcements; then it learns the next- to- last behaviour, which is reinforced by the opportunity to perform the final behaviour. And so on. A simplified example of response chaining is provided by Barnabus, a rat trained by psychologists Pierrel and Sherman, (1963) at Brown university. A simplified example of response chaining is provided by Barnabus, a rat trained by psychologists Pierrel and Sherman, (1963) at Brown university. By carefully working from the last response to the first, Barnabus was trained to make an ever-longer chain of responses to obtain a single food pellet. By carefully working from the last response to the first, Barnabus was trained to make an ever-longer chain of responses to obtain a single food pellet. When in top form, Barnabus was able to When in top form, Barnabus was able to climb a spiral staircase, cross a narrow bridge, climb a ladder, pull a toy car with chain, get into the car, pedal it to a second staircase, climb the staircase, wriggle through a tube, climb onto an elevator and descend to a platform, press a lever to receive a food pellet, and…start all over.

COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL & OPERANT CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITION OPERANT CONDITION 1.Nature of Response Involuntary, reflexSpontaneous Voluntary Reinforcement 2. ReinforcementOccurs before response (conditioned stimulus paired with UCS) Occurs after response (Response is followed by reinforcing stimulus or events. Role of Learner 3. Role of LearnerPassive (Response is elicited by US) Active Nature of Leaning 4. Nature of LeaningNeutral stimulus becomes a C. S through association with an UCS. Probability of making a response is altered by consequence that follows it.

SUPERSTITIOUS BEHAVIOUR Reinforcement affects not only the last response we are interested in, but also other responses occurring shortly before. Reinforcement affects not only the last response we are interested in, but also other responses occurring shortly before. This helps account for learning of many human superstitions. This helps account for learning of many human superstitions. If a golfer taps her club on the ground three times and then hits an unusually fine shot, the success of the shot reinforces not the correct swing but also the three taps. If a golfer taps her club on the ground three times and then hits an unusually fine shot, the success of the shot reinforces not the correct swing but also the three taps. It happens in other sporting activities as well. It happens in other sporting activities as well. If Kotoko/ Hearts went for Juju and they won, they are likely to go for another one before a crucial encounter in which they wish to win During operant training, animals often develop similar unnecessary responses. During operant training, animals often develop similar unnecessary responses. If a rat scratches its ear just before its bar press, it may continue to scratch its ear before ensuring bar press. In this case, the bar press is all that is needed to produce food, but the animal may continue to “superstitiously” scratch its ear each time, as if this were also necessary. In this case, the bar press is all that is needed to produce food, but the animal may continue to “superstitiously” scratch its ear each time, as if this were also necessary.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING OTHER NAMES - VICARIOUS / IMITATIONAL/ SOCIAL LEARNING

OBSERVATIONAL/ SOCIAL LEARNING People learn a large portion of what they know through observation. People learn a large portion of what they know through observation. Learning by observation differs from classical and operant conditioning because Learning by observation differs from classical and operant conditioning because it does not require direct personal experience with stimuli, reinforcers, or punishers. it does not require direct personal experience with stimuli, reinforcers, or punishers.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING- CONT’D Learning by observation involves simply watching the behavior of another person, called a model, and later imitating the model’s behaviour. Learning by observation involves simply watching the behavior of another person, called a model, and later imitating the model’s behaviour. Both children and adults learn a great deal through observation and imitation. Both children and adults learn a great deal through observation and imitation. Young children learn language, social skills, habits, fears, and many other everyday behaviors by observing their parents and older children. Young children learn language, social skills, habits, fears, and many other everyday behaviors by observing their parents and older children. Many people learn academic, athletic, and musical skills by observing and then imitating a teacher. Many people learn academic, athletic, and musical skills by observing and then imitating a teacher. Albert Bandura, was a pioneer in the study of observational learning. Albert Bandura, was a pioneer in the study of observational learning. According to him, this type of learning plays an important role in a child’s personality development. Bandura found evidence that traits such as honesty industriousness, self-control, aggressiveness, and impulsiveness could be learned by children from mere observation Psychologists once thought that only human beings could learn by observation. They now know that many kinds of animals (birds, cats, dogs, rodents, and primates) can learn by observing other members of their species***.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING – Any research evidence? BANDURA’S EXPERIMENT

BANDURA’S RESEARCH In one experiment, a preschool child worked on a drawing while a television set showed an adult behaving aggressively toward a large inflated Bobo doll (a clown doll that bounces back up when knocked down). In one experiment, a preschool child worked on a drawing while a television set showed an adult behaving aggressively toward a large inflated Bobo doll (a clown doll that bounces back up when knocked down). The adult pummeled*** the doll with a mallet, kicked it, flung it in the air, sat on it, and beat it in the face, while yelling such remarks as "Sock him in the nose … Kick him … Pow!" The adult pummeled*** the doll with a mallet, kicked it, flung it in the air, sat on it, and beat it in the face, while yelling such remarks as "Sock him in the nose … Kick him … Pow!"

BANDURA’S RESEARCH The child was then left in another room filled with interesting toys, including a Bobo doll. The child was then left in another room filled with interesting toys, including a Bobo doll. The experimenters observed the child through one-way glass. The experimenters observed the child through one-way glass. RESULTS; Compared with children who witnessed a Compared with children who witnessed a nonviolent adult model and nonviolent adult model and those not exposed to any model, those not exposed to any model, children who witnessed the aggressive display were much more likely to show aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo doll, and they often imitated the model's exact behaviors and hostile words. Picture? children who witnessed the aggressive display were much more likely to show aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo doll, and they often imitated the model's exact behaviors and hostile words. Picture?

BANDURA’S RESEARCH

A VARIANT OF BANDURA’S RESEARCH In a variant of the original experiment, Bandura and colleagues examined the effect of observed consequences on learning. In a variant of the original experiment, Bandura and colleagues examined the effect of observed consequences on learning. They showed four-year-old children one of three films of an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. They showed four-year-old children one of three films of an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. In one version of the film, the adult was praised for his or her aggressive behavior and REWARDED*** In one version of the film, the adult was praised for his or her aggressive behavior and REWARDED*** In another version, the adult was scolded, spanked, and warned not to behave that way again. In another version, the adult was scolded, spanked, and warned not to behave that way again. In a third version, the adult was neither rewarded nor punished. After viewing the film, each child was left alone in a room that contained a Bobo doll and other toys. After viewing the film, each child was left alone in a room that contained a Bobo doll and other toys. Many children imitated the adult’s violent behaviors, but children who saw the adult punished imitated the behaviors less often than children who saw the other films. Many children imitated the adult’s violent behaviors, but children who saw the adult punished imitated the behaviors less often than children who saw the other films. When the researchers promised the children a reward if they could copy the adult’s behavior, When the researchers promised the children a reward if they could copy the adult’s behavior, All three groups of children showed large and equal amounts of violent behavior toward the Bobo doll. All three groups of children showed large and equal amounts of violent behavior toward the Bobo doll.

BANDURA’S RESEARCH - conclusion Bandura concluded that Bandura concluded that even those children who did not see the adult model receive a reward had learned through observation, even those children who did not see the adult model receive a reward had learned through observation, but these children (especially those who saw the model being punished) would not display what they had learned until they expected a reward for doing so. but these children (especially those who saw the model being punished) would not display what they had learned until they expected a reward for doing so. The term latent learning (Morris & Maesto; Potential behaviour) describes cases in which an individual learns a new behavior but does not perform this behavior until there is the possibility of obtaining a reward. The term latent learning (Morris & Maesto; Potential behaviour) describes cases in which an individual learns a new behavior but does not perform this behavior until there is the possibility of obtaining a reward.

BANDURA’S THEORY OF IMITATION According to Bandura’s influential theory of imitation, also called social learning theory, four factors are necessary for a person to learn through observation and then imitate a behavior: According to Bandura’s influential theory of imitation, also called social learning theory, four factors are necessary for a person to learn through observation and then imitate a behavior: attention, attention, retention, retention, reproduction, and reproduction, and Motivation - important. Motivation - important. First, the learner must pay attention to the crucial details of the model’s behavior.** First, the learner must pay attention to the crucial details of the model’s behavior.** The second factor is retention—the learner must be able to retain all of this information in memory until it is time to use it.*** The second factor is retention—the learner must be able to retain all of this information in memory until it is time to use it.*** Third, the learner must have the physical skills and coordination needed for reproduction of the behavior.**** Third, the learner must have the physical skills and coordination needed for reproduction of the behavior.**** Finally, the learner must have the motivation (reward) to imitate the model. Finally, the learner must have the motivation (reward) to imitate the model. That is, learners are more likely to imitate a behavior if they expect it to lead to some type of reward or reinforcement.*****

Theory of Generalized Imitation **This theory states that people will imitate the behaviors of others if the situation is similar to cases in which their imitation was reinforced in the past. **This theory states that people will imitate the behaviors of others if the situation is similar to cases in which their imitation was reinforced in the past. For example, when a young child imitates the behavior of a parent or an older sibling, this imitation is often reinforced with smiles, praise, or other forms of approval. For example, when a young child imitates the behavior of a parent or an older sibling, this imitation is often reinforced with smiles, praise, or other forms of approval. Similarly, when children imitate the behaviors of friends, sports stars, or celebrities, this imitation may be reinforced—by the approval of their peers, if not their parents. Similarly, when children imitate the behaviors of friends, sports stars, or celebrities, this imitation may be reinforced—by the approval of their peers, if not their parents. Through the process of generalization, the child will start to imitate these models in other situations. Through the process of generalization, the child will start to imitate these models in other situations.

COMPARING BANDURA’S & IMITATION THEORIES Whereas Bandura’s theory emphasizes the imitator’s thought processes and motivation, the theory of generalized imitation relies on two basic principles of operant conditioning; Whereas Bandura’s theory emphasizes the imitator’s thought processes and motivation, the theory of generalized imitation relies on two basic principles of operant conditioning; reinforcement and reinforcement and generalization. generalization. Factors Affecting Imitation Factors Affecting Imitation the model’s behavior must have been reinforced & not punished. the model’s behavior must have been reinforced & not punished. expected consequences to the learner. (reward?)** characteristics of the model (pleasant and attentive to them) Likely to imitate models who have Likely to imitate models who have substantial influence over their lives, such as parents and teachers, and those who seem admired and successful, such as celebrities and athletes. Effect of TV!!

SOCIAL LEARNING & EFFECT OF TV Both children and adults are more likely to imitate models who are similar to them in sex, age, and background. Both children and adults are more likely to imitate models who are similar to them in sex, age, and background. For this reason, when behavior therapists use modeling to teach new behaviors or skills, they try to use models who are similar to the learners. For this reason, when behavior therapists use modeling to teach new behaviors or skills, they try to use models who are similar to the learners. EFFECT OF TV EFFECT OF TV In modern society, television provides many powerful models for children and abundant opportunities for observational learning. In modern society, television provides many powerful models for children and abundant opportunities for observational learning. Many parents are concerned about the behaviors their children can observe on TV. Many parents are concerned about the behaviors their children can observe on TV. Many television programs include depictions of Many television programs include depictions of sex, violence, drug and alcohol use, and vulgar language—behaviors that most parents do not want their children to imitate.

SOCIAL LEARNING & EFFECT OF TV A number of experiments, both inside and outside the laboratory, have found evidence that viewing television violence is related to increased aggression in children. A number of experiments, both inside and outside the laboratory, have found evidence that viewing television violence is related to increased aggression in children. Some psychologists have criticized this research, maintaining that the evidence is inconclusive. Some psychologists have criticized this research, maintaining that the evidence is inconclusive. Most psychologists now believe, however, that watching violence on television can sometimes lead to increased aggressiveness in children. Most psychologists now believe, however, that watching violence on television can sometimes lead to increased aggressiveness in children. +VE EFFECTS +VE EFFECTS The effects of television on children’s behaviors are not all negative. Educational programs The effects of television on children’s behaviors are not all negative. Educational programs opportunity to learn opportunity to learn letters of the alphabet, words, numbers, and social skills. Some important programs also show Some important programs also show people who solve problems and resolve differences through cooperation and discussion rather than through aggression and hostility.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING ABILITY A variety of factors determine an individual’s ability to learn and the speed of learning. A variety of factors determine an individual’s ability to learn and the speed of learning. Four important factors are the individual’s Four important factors are the individual’s age, motivation,. prior experience, and intelligence. In addition, certain developmental and learning disorders can impair a person’s ability to learn. In addition, certain developmental and learning disorders can impair a person’s ability to learn. As children grow, they become capable of learning more and more sophisticated types of information. As children grow, they become capable of learning more and more sophisticated types of information. Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget theorized that children go through four different stages of cognitive development. Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget theorized that children go through four different stages of cognitive development. the sensorimotor stage (from birth to about 2 years of age), infants use their senses to learn about their bodies and about objects in their immediate environments. the sensorimotor stage (from birth to about 2 years of age), infants use their senses to learn about their bodies and about objects in their immediate environments. In the preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years of age), children can think about objects and events that are not present, but their thinking is primitive and self- centered, and they have difficulty seeing the world from another person’s point of view In the preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years of age), children can think about objects and events that are not present, but their thinking is primitive and self- centered, and they have difficulty seeing the world from another person’s point of view In the concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11 years of age), children learn general rules about the physical world, such as the fact that the amount of water remains the same if it is poured between containers of different shapes. In the concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11 years of age), children learn general rules about the physical world, such as the fact that the amount of water remains the same if it is poured between containers of different shapes.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING ABILITY Finally, in the formal operational stage (ages 11 and up), children become capable of logical and abstract thinking. Finally, in the formal operational stage (ages 11 and up), children become capable of logical and abstract thinking. Adults continue to learn new knowledge and skills throughout their lives Adults continue to learn new knowledge and skills throughout their lives Age-related illnesses that involve a deterioration of mental functioning, such as Alzheimer’s disease, can severely reduce a person’s ability to learn. Age-related illnesses that involve a deterioration of mental functioning, such as Alzheimer’s disease, can severely reduce a person’s ability to learn.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING ABILITY Learning is usually most efficient and rapid when the learner is motivated and attentive. Learning is usually most efficient and rapid when the learner is motivated and attentive. Behavioral studies with both animals and people have shown that one effective way to maintain the learner’s motivation is to deliver strong and immediate reinforcers for correct responses. Behavioral studies with both animals and people have shown that one effective way to maintain the learner’s motivation is to deliver strong and immediate reinforcers for correct responses. However, other research has indicated that very high levels of motivation are not ideal. However, other research has indicated that very high levels of motivation are not ideal. Psychologists believe an intermediate level of motivation is best for many learning tasks. Psychologists believe an intermediate level of motivation is best for many learning tasks. If a person’s level of motivation is too low, he or she may give up quickly. At the other extreme, a very high level of motivation may cause such stress and distraction that the learner cannot focus on the task. At the other extreme, a very high level of motivation may cause such stress and distraction that the learner cannot focus on the task.

LEARNING ABILITY FACTORS – PRIOR EXPERIENCE How well a person learns a new task may depend heavily on the person’s previous experience with similar tasks. How well a person learns a new task may depend heavily on the person’s previous experience with similar tasks. Just as a response can transfer from one stimulus to another through the process of generalization, people can learn new behaviors more quickly if the behaviors are similar to those they can already perform. Just as a response can transfer from one stimulus to another through the process of generalization, people can learn new behaviors more quickly if the behaviors are similar to those they can already perform. This phenomenon is called positive transfer. This phenomenon is called positive transfer. Someone who has learned to drive one car, for example, will be able to drive other cars, even though the feel and handling of the cars will differ. Someone who has learned to drive one car, for example, will be able to drive other cars, even though the feel and handling of the cars will differ. In cases of negative transfer, however, a person’s prior experience can interfere with learning something new. In cases of negative transfer, however, a person’s prior experience can interfere with learning something new. For instance, after memorizing one shopping list, it may be more difficult to memorize a different shopping list. Or reversing a car with a trailer

LEARNING ABILITY FACTORS – INTELLIGENCE Psychologists have long known that people differ individually in their level of intelligence, in their ability to learn and understand. Psychologists have long known that people differ individually in their level of intelligence, in their ability to learn and understand. In the 1980s American psychologist Howard Gardner proposed that there are many different forms of intelligence, In the 1980s American psychologist Howard Gardner proposed that there are many different forms of intelligence, including linguistic, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, logical-mathematical, musical, and interpersonal intelligence. musical, and interpersonal intelligence. A person may easily learn skills in some categories but have difficulty learning in others. A person may easily learn skills in some categories but have difficulty learning in others. Learning and Developmental Disorders Learning and Developmental Disorders Learning and developmental disorders usually first appear in childhood and often persist into adulthood. Learning and developmental disorders usually first appear in childhood and often persist into adulthood. Children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may not be able to sit still long enough to focus on specific tasks. Children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may not be able to sit still long enough to focus on specific tasks. Children with autism typically have difficulty speaking, understanding language, and interacting with people. Children with autism typically have difficulty speaking, understanding language, and interacting with people. People with mental retardation, characterized primarily by very low intelligence, may have trouble mastering basic living tasks and academic skills. People with mental retardation, characterized primarily by very low intelligence, may have trouble mastering basic living tasks and academic skills. Children with learning or developmental disorders often receive special education tailored to their individual needs and abilities. Children with learning or developmental disorders often receive special education tailored to their individual needs and abilities.

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They used it to encompass subjects as –Psychology –Psychiatry –Sociology –Social Anthropology –History –Economics –Ethics etc. They used it to encompass.

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