1. Using your Lit Review in your Final Report Structure of your Report Drawing conclusions from your sources for your argumentation

2. Remember: Your Final Report is based on, and oriented towards, your Thesis Statement Your Revised Thesis Statement is the focus, and the starting point Your Lit Review supports / argues against your Thesis –It also gives background information, defines terms, points out other areas that need research

3. Therefore Start by examining/revising your Thesis Statement on the basis of what you learnt in your Lit Review Break down your Thesis Statement into sub-topics. You structure your paper, and create subheadings on the basis of your Thesis Statement.

4. BUT You should also use conventional, generic headings: –Introduction –Conclusions The topic oriented Headings belong in the Body of your paper.

5. To (re)organize your sources Ask yourself –“What does this source do for my argument? –“Where does it belong in the structure of claim – data – warrant – counterclaim – rebuttal? –What aspect of content does it support/explain/elaborate –Or is it background? Should it therefore go in my Introduction / Conclusions? The bulk of your writing should be analytical, and argumentation oriented.

6. Remember the recommended structure for your report 1)Introduction: General to specific structure a)General statement(s) about your topic / Background What many/some researchers have done / General trend(s) / What has been argued/said. b) What you, however, argue c) BRIEFLY: Why you argue that d) What you will do in this paper (metatext), and how your paper is organized Length: ½ - 1 page

7. OR You can choose b-a-c: - What you argue - BRIEFLY: Why you argue that - However, What many/some researchers have done / General trend(s) / What other have argued/said. General statement(s) about your topic / Background - What you will do in this paper (metatext), and how your paper is organized

8. Then (2) in the BODY of your text, EITHER … a)Explain your thesis/claim in enough detail, and illustrate (if appropriate), with supporting evidence for it (from literature) - describe, analyse, illustrate, explain, give factual detail, define terms, give support from sources(length: 3-5 pages) b)Introduce your counterclaim/another perspective / omission / approach on the issue -Examine the literature on that argument / omission / approach. (length 1 - 2 pages)

9. OR do it the other way round, if it works for you Introduce your counterclaim/another perspective / omission / approach on the issue –Examine the literature on that argument / omission / approach. (length 1 - 2 pages) Explain your thesis/claim in enough detail, and illustrate (if appropriate), with supporting evidence for it (from literature) - describe, analyse, illustrate, explain, give factual detail (length: 3-5 pages)

10. 3) Finally, Write your Conclusions section (1-3 pages) –Summarize the argument/debate briefly –Draw your conclusions re your Thesis Statement –Discuss your conclusions For example: –Are there other issues than the ones here considered? What are the limitations of this study (ie sources are mostly fairly old)? –Can you generalize anything from this discussion?

11. Do NOT simply repeat the factual details from your source; choose what is most appropriate attempt to summarise / paraphrase all the information claim more than is reasonable or defensible DO  be cautious and critical about what can be generalized  be confident about the strength of your claim  HEDGE, if necessary!!

12. Modifying your claim Qualifying your Comparisons Your source gives the following figures: Girls: 56% - Boys: 35% Compare the following: Fifty-six percent of girls reported restrictions on going out late at night as opposed to 35% of boys. More girls reported restrictions on going out at night than did boys. Fewer boys reported restrictions … Twenty-one percent more girls reported …

13. Be confidently uncertain! “It is important for students to learn to be confidently uncertain.” (John Skelton, Uiversity of Aston, personal communication, 1988)

14. How to be confidently uncertain? Use an appropriate modal auxiliary. Distance yourself from the claim. Point out that the data used is ‘soft’. If appropriate, make your generalization vague. Point out exceptions. Use weaker verbs.

15. Weakening / Increasing Probability: Language focus: 1)Put modal auxiliaries to work! “Smith (2013) suggests that sleeping 7-9 hours each day results in better academic performance.” “Sleeping 7-9 hours each day results in better academic performance (Smith 2013).” “ … may result…” “… might / could result”

16. Weakening probability: (2) Distancing yourself from the claim “The factory has benefited from the recent technological upgrade.” Smith (2013) points out that the factory … seems/appears to have benefited… It seems that the factory has benefited… … would seem to indicate that the factory has benefited …

17. Weakening probability: (3) Show that the data are “soft”: “… different employees react to the same situations differently” Based on the limited data available… Some studies have pointed out that … According to the pilot study … Based on an informal survey of nine departmental managers, …

18. Weakening probability: (4) Vague generalization Children living in poverty tend to have a history of health problems. In many parts of the world children living in poverty have health problems. It is a well known fact that children living in poverty frequently have health problems.

19. Weakening probability: (5) Point out exceptions “With the exception of / Apart from / …” Except for a small number of countries such as Sweden, Japan and Thailand, student loan schemes are almost exclusively reserved for higher education.”

20. Weakening probability: (6) Use weaker verbs Contribute to >< lead to Suggest >< show Question >< challenge Assume >< show Influence >< distort

21. Are the writers of the following “confidently uncertain”? A)“According to simulation studies, in some circumstances the use of seat belts may reduce certain types of physical injuries in car accidents.” B) “It could be concluded that evidence seems to suggest that at least certain villagers might not have traded their pottery with others outside the community.” (an anthropology study) Don’t overdo hedging!