1. Constraints on definite article alternation in speech production: To “thee” or not to “thee”? By M. GARETH GASKELL, HELEN COX, KATHERINE FOLEY, HELEN GRIEVE, and RACHEL O’BRIEN University of York, York, England Presented by Christie Curie 12/22/09

2.  To or not to or To or to

3. Selection of the Reduced or Unreduced Definite Article  Unreduced the – “thee”  Reduced the – “thuh”  Selection depends on a number of different factors, including  Phoneme following ‘the’  Spelling of the word following ‘the’  Stress assignment of the following word

4. This study seeks to research:  alternation in pronunciation of the definite article in English. “A major research goal in psycholinguistics has been to understand the way morphological systems operate in language perception and production... and the nature of the cognitive system underpinning the linguistic one, with different views as to the separability of the regular and the irregular processes.”

5. Previous study: Raymond, Fisher and Healy (2002)  Examined factors influencing definite and indefinite article production in American English using empirical, rather than a corpus-based approach to determine speaker preferences  Normative Rule:  Reduced form “thuh” before consonant sounds and unreduced “thee” before vowel sounds Study found deviation from normative rule was common – particularly with vowel-initial words

6. Previous study: Raymond, Fisher and Healy (2002) More deviations found with Vowel initial words with first-syllable stress (attitude) and consonant initial words with second-syllable stress (society) than with vowel-initial words with second-syllable stress (attention) and consonant-initial words with first- syllable stress (service).

7. Potential problem with study  The explicit nature of the task may have produced non-automatic responses and the participants were most likely aware of what was being tested.  In this research study authors attempt to perform an empirical study eliminating these drawbacks and isolate implicit selection during normal language production.

8. Experiment 1  25 males / 25 females – British native speakers Mean age: 21.1 yrs. What was being tested?  Initial phoneme class (vowel vs. consonant)  Lexical stress patterns (first vs. second-syllable stress)  Word frequency (high vs. low)  Orthographic influence for /j/ initial words (united vs. yellow)  Orthographic influence for vowel-initial words (silent “h” words vs. ordinary vowel-initial words)  First versus second-syllable stress for “h” initial words (hospital vs. heroic)  Initial vowel quality (high front vowel /i/ (in evening) and / I / ( in influence) vs. others vowels (attitude)

9. Experiment 1:Procedures  Normative rule was used to ‘grade’ participants’ responses “ thuh” before consonant and “thee” before vowel Two tasks were performed  Sentence Production Task: The participants were given two words and asked to make a simple sentence. Example in this study: “inconvenient - detour”.  Determiner Replacement Task: Replication of Raymond et al.’s speech production task, Example in original study: replace “His” with “the” in the phrase: His yellow duck.

10. Results  Similar results to previous study -words beginning with vowel letters produced far more errors (42.1%) than did consonant- initial words (19.9%).  First-syllable stress produces a bias towards the reduced “the”  Second-syllable stress produces a bias toward an unreduced “the”  The participants were more likely to treat the /j/ as a vowel in terms of article alternant selection if it began with a vowel letter. (yellow vs. union)  Even if the word began with a consonant letter, the error rate was much higher for /j/-initial words than for obstruent-initial words generally.

11. Did a silent “h” in a vowel-initial word influence pronunciation of the definite article.  the “h”-initial second-syllable stress items generated 10% deviations from the normative rule  the “h”-initial words with first-syllable stress generated 1.4% deviations from normative rule Other issues which were considered:

12. A vast majority (45 out of 50) was making use of a normative rule. It’s clear through the study, however, these same participants were being influenced by far more than merely whether the following phoneme was a vowel or a consonant. In other words, responses are generally governed by the dominant factor of the initial phoneme of the following word but, nonetheless, multiple weak constraints operate in the selection of the form of the definite article. Conclusions from Experiment #1

13. Experiment 2  Two Aims:  Examine whether there was any evidence for a developmental default in operation early on in language acquisition. (This behavior would be consistent with the phenomenon of early over-regularization found in other linguistic systems in development)  Examine the influences during development of some of the factors identified in Experiment 1. To find out whether orthographic influences could be observed at an age at which spelling rules are emerging and links between orthographic and phonological units are being forged.

14. Procedures  40 children – in two groups – all native British speakers  Group 1 mean age: 7 yrs. 11 months  Group 2 mean age: 10 years 2 months They were given six sets of 10 words. The participants were presented with a typed sentence frame containing a gap (e.g., “John put on the _______ jumper”). The target word was then presented orally, to avoid inducing orthographic effects through visual presentation. The participant was then required to produce the full sentence, with the target word filling the gap.

15. Is there selection or not? Responses were coded simply in terms of the percentage of “the” responses that took the unreduced form (“thee,”).

16.  early on in language development, the reduced form of “the” predominates in all circumstances. The use of the unreduced definite article before vowels increases throughout childhood.  there was an effect of spelling for /j/-initial word, with more unreduced forms for words beginning with vowel letters than for words beginning with consonant letters  there were no significant correlations between familiarity levels and production of the unreduced form. Therefore, there is no evidence to suggest that familiarity with the words was affecting performance. This finding is important, because it implies that even for very low familiarity words, the alternation of the definite article operates normally Conclusions from Experiment #2

17. The results of the two experiments here confirm the role of a range of different linguistic constraints on the pronunciation of the definite article in English. In Experiment 1 & 2 the most influential factor on pronunciation was: the class of the initial phoneme of the following word, with the reduced form generally preceding a consonant and the unreduced form generally preceding a vowel. the high front vowels /i/ and /I/ were atypical in that they were more likely to be preceded by a reduced “thuh.” /j/-initial words were atypical in that they were more likely to be preceded by an unreduced “thee,” Results

18. ORTHOGRAPHY INFLUENCE: Perhaps most surprising, both experiments showed an effect of the spelling of the following word on alternant selection. In Experiment 1, this was an influential factor for /j/-initial words, with an increase in the use of the unreduced form from 16% to 44% in the sentence production task. In Experiment 2, orthography was also influential for words beginning with /j/. Orthography had no effect on words beginning with standard vowels. STRESS INFLUENCE: The selection of a reduced “thuh” was more likely if the following syllable had primary lexical stress. This effect of stress was amplified in the case of /h/-initial than for obstruent or vowel-initial words. DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCE: The use of the unreduced definite article before vowels increases throughout childhood. CONCLUSIONS

19. This pattern of results suggests that factors such as stress assignment and spelling are secondary constraints on definite article selection and have a strong influence only when the initial phoneme of a word is not a typical vowel or consonant. An alternative possibility is that the preferred pronunciation of the definite article is stored in the lexical representation for each potential following word. CONCLUSIONS

20. There are many factors that determine the selection of the definite article allomorphs. These results suggest that models of speech production must allow allomorph selection to occur at a stage of processing in which a wide variety of local information is present and that this selection process must generalize to cases in which the following word is unfamiliar or even unknown. CONCLUSIONS