1. Externalities 1

2. Externality –The uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander –Market failure Negative externality –Impact on the bystander is adverse Positive externality –Impact on the bystander is beneficial 2

3. Externalities Market equilibrium –Inefficient allocation of resources –Buyers and sellers neglect the external effects of their actions when deciding how much to demand or supply –Fails to maximize the total benefit to society as a whole Government –Protects the interests of bystanders 3

4. 4 The Market for Aluminum Price of Aluminum Quantity of Aluminum 0 Demand (private value) Supply (private cost) Q MARKET Equilibrium

5. Externalities & Market Inefficiency Negative externalities –Cost to society (of producing a good) Larger than the cost to the good producers –Social cost Private costs of the producers (supply) Plus the costs to those bystanders affected adversely by the negative externality –Social cost curve – above the supply curve 5

6. 6 Pollution and the Social Optimum Price of Aluminum Quantity of Aluminum 0 Demand (private value) Supply (private cost) In the presence of a negative externality, such as pollution, the social cost of the good exceeds the private cost. The optimal quantity, Q OPTIMUM, is therefore smaller than the equilibrium quantity, Q MARKET. Q MARKET Optimum Social cost (private cost and external cost) External Cost Q OPTIMUM Equilibrium

7. Externalities & Market Inefficiency Positive externalities –Education Benefit of education – private Externalities: better government, lower crime rate, higher productivity and wages –Social value – demand Higher than private value –Social value curve Above demand curve 7

8. 8 Education and the Social Optimum Price of Education Quantity of Education 0 Demand (private value) Supply (private cost) In the presence of a positive externality, the social value of the good exceeds the private value. The optimal quantity, Q OPTIMUM, is therefore larger than the equilibrium quantity, Q MARKET. Q MARKET Equilibrium Social value (private value and external benefit) External Benefit Q OPTIMUM Optimum

9. Externalities & Market Inefficiency Negative externalities –Markets - produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable –Government: tax Positive externalities –Markets - produce a smaller quantity than is socially desirable –Government: subsidy 9

10. Public Policies Toward Externalities Command-and-control policies –Regulate behavior directly –Regulation Market-based policies –Provide incentives so that private decision makers will choose to solve the problem on their own –Corrective taxes and subsidies –Tradable pollution permits 10

11. Public Policies Toward Externalities Tradable pollution permits –Voluntary transfer of the right to pollute from one firm to another –New scarce resource: pollution permits –Market to trade permits –Firm’s willingness to pay Depend on its cost of reducing pollution 11