2. The Constitution The Constitution describes a number of specific checks and balances. Test writers often include a multiple-choice question asking students to identify an example of a constitutional check and balance.

3. The Constitutions Political scientists now agree that the Federalist Papers influenced few of the New York delegates to ratify the Constitution. However, the Federalist Papers have had a significant influence on the AP U.S. Government and Politics Development Committee. Most exams include a multiple-choice question devoted to Madison’s contention that political factions are undesirable but inevitable. Reading Federalist No. 10 and 51 will help you prepare for free-response questions on the theoretical underpinnings of the Constitution.

4. Federalism The commerce clause and the elastic clause have played key roles in the expansion of federal power Be sure you can give examples of how these clauses have been used to increase the power of the federal government relative to the power of state governments. For example, the Supreme Court used the commerce clause to uphold the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

5. Federalism It is very important to understand the differences between categorical and block grants. Categorical grants are designed for a specific purpose. They have increase the power of the federal government because states must comply with the attendant regulations. IN contrast, block grants have fewer strings attached thus allowing states greater discretion in making decisions about how to implement a program..

6. Political Beliefs and Public Opinion AP U.S. Government and Politics test writers often write multiple-choice questions asking students to identify an answer that is NOT a core value of American political culture. It is important to remember that, while America’s political culture does support economic opportunity, it does NOT support economic equality.

7. Political Beliefs and Public Opinion Most of the released exams have included a multiple- choice question asking students to either define political socialization or recognize that the family plays the most important role in passing political values form one generation to the next.

8. Voters and Voter Behavior The AP U.S. Government and Politics exam has included several questions about race and voting. Multiple-choice questions focus on the fact that African-Americans strongly support Democratic presidential and congressional candidates. Free- response questions focus on the methods that states used to reduce African-American turnout prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1965.

9. Voters and Voter Behavior Voting in presidential elections is the most common form of political activity undertaken by U.S. citizens. Nonetheless, a majority of the American electorate does not vote in elections at all levels of government. Remember that voter turnout in the United States is lower than in most other Western democracies.

10. Political Parties The AP U.S. Government and Politics exam committee has written several multiple-choice questions designed to test your knowledge of America’s system of winner- take-all, single-member districts. Be sure you know that this system makes it difficult for new parties to emerge, thus preserving the two-party system.

11. Political Parties Devote special attention to the era of divided government form 1969 to the present. The causes and consequences of divided government have been tested in several free-response questions.

12. Interest Groups The AP U.S. Government and Politics Development Committee has included at least one multiple-choice question on PACs on each released exam. It is very important that you understand the function and impact of PACs.

13. Interest Groups Be sure that you can compare and contrast elitist, pluralist, and hyperpluralist theories of how the American political system works. All three theories attempt to explain who has power and influence in the united States.

14. The Mass Media The mass media, political parties, and interest groups are key linkage institutions. Be sure that you can identify these linkage institutions and explain the ways that they connect citizens to the government.

15. The Mass Media The mass media is an important linkage institution. However, its political role has not been reflected on AP U.S. Government and Politics exams. Of the 360 released multiple-choice questions, less than 10 focused on the mass media. Of the 44 free-reponse questions asked between 1999 and 2009, just 2 have focused on the mass media. Given this minimal coverage, do not spend too much of your tie reviewing the mass media.. All of the key points asked thus far are included in this chapter

16. Congress Polls repeatedly report that a majority of Americans disapprove of the job Congress is doing. Yet the same polls report that a majority of Americans believe that their own representative deserves to be reelected. The AP U.S. Government and Politics Development Committee has devoted more multiple-choice questions to this paradox than to any other topic. Be sure that you carefully study the reasons why incumbents are ussually reelected.

17. Congress Do not overlook the War Powers Resolution. Most released exams have had a multiple-choice question on this topic. In addition, the War Powers Resolution was featured in a free-response question asked in 2007.

18. Presidential Elections and the Presidency Divided government has been a persistent fact of political life for the past half century. A number of free-response questions have asked to explain the impact of divided government on public policy, legislative gridlock, and federal appointments.

19. Presidential Elections and the Presidency Most AP U.S. Government and Politics exams contain a multiple-choice question asking you to identify which answer choice is not a presidential role or formal power. It is important to remember that the Constitution does not allow the president to form new cabinet-level departments, raise revenue, or declare war. While the president is the leader of his or her political party, this role is not authorized by the Constitution..

20. The Federal Bureaucracy Be sure you know the difference between monsetary policy and fiscal policy. Monetary policy refers to the money supply and interest rates. The Federal Reserve Board has the primary responsibility for monetary policy. Fiscal policy refers to taxing and spending policies Both the executive and legislative branches share responsibility for fiscal policies.

21. The Federal Bureaucracy Be sure that you know the difference between an iron triangle and an issue network. An iron triangle has three interlocking points-an administrative agency, an interest group, and a congressional committee. An issue network consists of a wide range of people who debate major public policies.

22. The Federal Court System The Supreme Court agrees to hear very few lower court appeals. Be sure that you can identify a writ of certiorari and the Rule of Four and explain their role in the case selection process.

23. The Federal Court System Judicial restraint and judicial activism are well-know philosophies that appear on most AP U.S. Government and Politics exams. Do not overlook the ways in which the Supreme Court is insulated from public opinion and the factors that restrain the Court from straying too far from public opinion.

24. The Federal Budget and Social Security Be sure you understand that entitlement programs represent the largest portion of uncontrollable spending in the federal budget. Entitlements thus represent a formidable barrier to achieving a balance budget.

25. The Federal Budget and Social Security AP U.S. Government and Politics exams have thus far not devoted any multiple-choice or free-response questions on foreign policy and national security. In contrast, they have devoted a number of questions to Social Security. It is very important for you to study the demographic forces that are combining to threaten the solvency of the Social Security system.

26. Civil Liberties The process of elective incorporation generated several multiple-choice questions and a free-response question on the 2005 exam. It is very important to know how the Supreme Court has used the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to apply protections in the Bill of Rights to the states. Be sure that you can discuss how the rights of criminal defendants and privacy rights have been incorporated.

27. Civil Liberties Each AP U.S. Government and Politics exam contains questions devoted to Supreme Court cases. Miranda v. Arizona and Roe v. Wade have generated the most multiple-choice questions. It is important to remember that the “Miranda warning” protects criminal suspects against unfair police interrogation. It is also important to remember that the Roe v. Wade decision was based on the right to privacy established in Griswold v. Connecticut.

28. Civil Rights AP U.S. Government and Politics test writers have devoted a significant umber of multiple-choice questions to Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Be sure that you know Brown used the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to reverse Plessy v. Ferguson. Also be sure you know that the Court used the interstate commerce provision of the Constitution to uphold the legality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

29. Civil Rights Affirmative action is a controversial issue that has generated heated public debate and a number of test questions. The Supreme Court has consistently ruled against quota systems while affirming the right of organizations to use race as one factor among others in admission and hiring policies.