1. Exchanging Knowledge for Widening Participation: A Focus on Higher Education in Ghana and Tanzania Dissemination Seminars Dar es Salaam 9 November 2010 Accra 18 November 2010 http://www.sussex.ac.uk/wphegt sussex.ac.uk/cheer Centre for Higher Education and Equity Research

2. Session overview The project in relation to national and international contexts. Summary of findings from Equity Scorecards. Summary of findings from life history interviews with students and interviews with staff and policymakers. Messages to universities and policymakers.

3. Context for widening participation Student enrolment worldwide: 13 million in 1960 82 million in 1995 137.8 million in 2005 24% globally 5% in Sub-Saharan Africa 6% in Ghana 1% in Tanzania

4. Why Widen Participation in Higher Education? National Economic Development Social Development, Inclusion and Equity Labour Market Requirements Human Capital and Capacity Development

5. Women’s Enrolments Ghana 1990: 22.5% (UNESCO, 1999a, 1999b). 2005/6: 35% (UNESCO, 2006) Tanzania 1991: 15.9% (UNESCO, 1999a, 1999b). 2005/6: 31.2% (UNESCO, 2006)

6. Policy Focus on African HE World Bank (2009) ‘a flood of students into increasingly dysfunctional institutions’ (World Bank, 2009: 110). ‘Despite rising enrolment in tertiary- level institutions, the numbers of students graduating are pitifully small’ (World Bank, 2009: x). UNESCO (2009) HE as a public good Quality and sustainability of sub- Saharan African HE HE contributing to the competitiveness/ diversification of African economies.

7. Widening Participation in Higher Education in Ghana and Tanzania: Developing Equity Scorecards Quantitative Equity Scorecards Measuring: Sociological variables of gender, age, socio-economic status (SES) In Relation to: Educational Outcomes: access, retention and achievement. In Relation to: 4 Programmes of Study in each HEI. 2 Public and 2 private HEIs. Qualitative 200 life history interviews with students from public and private universities (100 Ghana and 100 Tanzania); 200 interviews with academic staff and policy makers in Ghana and Tanzania.

8. ESC 1: Access to B.Sc. Engineering according to Age, Gender and Socio-Economic Status at a Public University in Tanzania by Levels in 2007/2008 B.Sc. Engineering % of Students on the Programme MenWomen Low SESAge 30 or overMature and Low SES TotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomen Level 10073.9626.048.856.881.970.980.49 0.00 Level 20075.0524.9510.148.771.36 0.191.170.00 Level 30076.8323.179.829.070.761.761.260.500.25 0.00 Level 40074.6625.3410.789.701.084.312.701.621.080.810.27 ESC 19: Access to B. Ed. Maths according to Age, Gender and Socio-Economic Status at a Private University in Tanzania by Levels in 2007/2008 B.Ed. Maths % of Students on the Programme MenWomen Low SESAge 30 or overMature and Low SES TotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomen Level 10086.9813.0211.6311.160.4752.5647.914.655.58 0.00 Level 20082.1417.8610.71 0.7163.5753.5710.007.867.140.71 Level 30070.1829.8212.28 0.0077.1957.8919.3010.53 0.00 Access to Specific Programmes: Tanzania

9. Access to Different Programmes: Ghana ESC 3: Access to Level 100 on Four Programmes at a Public University in Ghana according to Age, Gender and Socio-Economic Status Programme % of Students on the Programme MenWomen Low SESAge 30 or overMature and Low SES TotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomen B. Sc. Optometry69.2330.770.00 B. Commerce76.1123.892.782.220.5612.789.443.330.56 0.00 B. Education (Primary) 77.9522.0510.248.661.5778.7459.8418.907.095.511.57 B. Management Studies 66.6733.331.891.260.638.181.896.290.00 ESC 4: Access to Level 100 on Four Programmes at a Private University in Ghana according to Age, Gender and Socio-Economic Status Programme % of Students on the Programme MenWomen Low SESAge 30 or overMature and Low SES TotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomen B.Sc. Economics61.0438.960.00 3.90 0.00 B.Sc. Human Resources Management 36.5663.444.410.443.9610.132.647.491.320.440.88 B.Sc. Agri-Business Management 92.867.140.00 28.57 0.00 B.Sc. Accountancy65.6334.386.882.504.378.755.623.130.00

10. Patterns of Completion: Ghana ESC 7: Rate of Completion of Degree at the Public University (cohort completing in 2007/2008) ESC 8: Rate of Completion of Degree at the Private University (cohort completing in 2007/2008) Programme Overall Completion rate (%) MenWomenLow SES StudentsMature Students % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) B. Commerce79.5170.6257.9582.0629.3821.5673.393.23 10022.1012.4056.10 B. Management Studies84.1654.3549.3890.8645.6534.7876.191.240.9375.0017.7011.1863.16 B. Education (Primary)89.4456.5249.6987.9143.4839.7591.4310.569.9494.1272.6764.6088.89 B. Sc. Optometry10075.00 10025.00 1000.00-- -- Programme Overall Completion rate (%) MenWomenLow SES StudentsMature Students % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) % on programme % who completed Completion rate (%) B.Sc. Economics95.8383.3379.1795.0016.67 1004.17 1000.00-- B.Sc. Human Resources Management 80.1829.5222.9177.6170.4857.2781.250.88 1004.412.2050.00 B.Sc. Agri-Business Management 10072.73 10027.27 1000.00-- -- B.Sc. Accountancy93.7957.7654.0493.5542.2439.7594.120.62 1003.112.4880.00

11. ESC 23: Rate of Withdrawal at the Tanzanian Public University (cohort completing in 2007/2008 ) Programme MenWomenLow SES StudentsNon Low SESMature StudentsNon Mature % on programme % withdrawal % on programme % withdrawal % on programme % withdrawal % on programme % withdrawal % on programme % withdrawal % on programme % withdrawal B. Commerce70.7310.2929.279.256.265.4193.7410.291.86*98.14* LLB. Law58.309.2741.7012.047.725.0092.2810.886.5635.2993.448.68 B.Sc. Engineering77.6719.4622.335.2111.1620.8388.8415.715.3534.7894.6515.23 B. Science with Education 61.9027.6938.1025.0010.4827.2789.5226.606.6742.8693.3325.51 * Insufficient data on the age of withdrawn students from this programme Patterns of Completion: Tanzania

12. Comparing Achievement: Ghana ESC 15: Student Achievement at the Public University (cohort completing in 2007/2008) Programme TotalMen WomenLow SES StudentsMature Students % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class B. Commerce6.4745.8270.627.6349.2429.383.6737.613.2316.6741.6722.102.4434.15 B. Management Studies2.8048.7654.354.5753.1445.650.6843.541.2425.000.0017.700.0019.30 B. Education (Primary)5.5975.1656.526.5970.3343.484.2981.4310.5611.7670.9472.676.8470.94 B. Sc. Optometry0.0068.7575.000.0066.6725.000.0075.000.00-- -- ESC 16: Student Achievement at the Private University (cohort completing in 2007/2008) Programme TotalMenWomenLow SES StudentsMature Students % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class B.Sc. Economics0.0079.1783.330.0080.0016.670.0075.004.170.00100.00.00-- B.Sc. Human Resources Management 0.0067.8429.520.0067.1670.480.0068.120.880.00100.04.410.0050.0 B.Sc. Agri-Business Management 0.0081.8272.730.0075.0027.270.00100.00.00-- 0.00-- B.Sc. Accountancy0.0085.0957.760.0083.8742.240.0086.760.620.00100.03.110.0080.0

13. ESC 17: Student Achievement at the Public University (cohort completing in 2007/2008) Programme TotalMenWomenLow SES StudentsMature Students % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class B. Commerce0.7590.4370.360.8089.3329.640.6393.046.570.0088.572.060.0081.82 LLB. Law0.0077.9758.900.0084.1741.100.0069.078.050.0084.215.080.0066.67 B.Sc. Engineering 5.3982.7574.665.7881.5925.344.2686.1710.785.0082.504.310.0081.25 B. Science with Education 0.0093.5161.040.0091.4938.960.0096.6710.390.001005.190.00100 ESC 18: Student Achievement at the Private University (cohort completing in 2007/2008) Programme TotalMenWomenLow SES StudentsMature Students % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class % on programme % 1 st class % 2 nd class LLB. Law0.0034.8355.140.0031.1044.850.0039.417.650.0034.4812.400.0044.68 B. Business Administration 13.3374.0071.3312.1572.9028.6716.2876.746.0011.1177.7825.3313.1660.53 B. Ed. Maths0.0010070.180.0010029.820.0010012.280.0010077.190.00100 Comparing Achievement: Tanzania

14. Messages from the Equity Scorecards: Access Low SES and mature students under- represented in all subjects except Education. Clustering of under-represented groups in disciplines with low exchange rate in the labour market. AA programmes ‘might’ increase numbers of women e.g. BSc Engineering in Tanzanian public university, but not women from low socio-economic backgrounds. When structures of inequality are intersected, poor and older women disappear from majority of programmes. When under-represented groups are there they tend to be men.

15. Messages from the Equity Scorecards: Retention/Completion/Achievement Mature students' high dropout rate No major difference between the achievement of socio-economically advantaged/ disadvantaged students Private universities tended to admit a higher proportion of women than public universities but significant variations of participation rate between programmes Degree classification similar for different groups of students The majority of students in both countries obtain 2nd class degrees Variability in completion rates relate more to programmes than to student identities No major difference between completion rates for men and women.

16. How to Widen Participation: Affirmative Action? AA as Practice I know that the University have some form of affirmative action, I haven’t read it anywhere but I know that it is being practised where in the past for instance the School of Business would have different scores in admitting male, female and in the Faculty of Social Science for instance students from certain schools who have less than favourable numbers would be admitted over students from the so called favoured schools who have similar numbers, that’s what I am aware of, but I don’t know of any such policy (Male staff, public university, Ghana). AA as Policy I mean girls have been given opportunities to come to the university even if they don’t meet, even they don’t have the qualifications. And some of them have been admitted prior to entering university at science so that they can get good grades to get into the university but students with disabilities are not included (Female staff, public university, Tanzania). Also, gender sensitivity of our scholarships, especially with regard to those [women] in deprived areas. There’s a special scheme for them to gain access to university at much lower grades. They are quite new especially in the gender aspect (Male government official, Ghana).

17. Backlash AA Interventions Lowering entry requirements Pre-sessional programmes Bursaries for under-represented groups. AA seen by some as: Reverse discrimination In opposition to merit Social Engineering Threat to quality and standards Challenge to entitlements of privileged groups AA seen by others as: Creating opportunities A corrective to the inequalities of patriarchy Proof that once entered, under-represented groups can thrive. I’m beginning to have the funny feeling that the males will soon be relegated to ‘deprived students’ and we also need to see if we can work out everything on equal basis for them (Male staff, private university, Ghana). I know there has been this initiative…one of which has been the affirmative action. We started with science special programme which … encouraged students who did not qualify for first entry to go through a programme which enabled them to access education.... I think those initiatives have shown some fruits, like the first science bunch that come under special programme although there were some resistance from some of the staff members, they did finally realize that it was…it was…their fears were unfounded because some of them among the best performers in sciences (Female staff, public university, Tanzania).

18. Messages from Interviews: Staff and Policymakers Difference between staff and students' perceptions e.g. of support for students Difference between staff perceptions of WP successes and the ESCs e.g. numbers of mature and low SES students Staff discontentment with admissions procedures Resourcing- WP and under-funded expansion WP widely perceived as more women entering Science EFA policies not integrated with HE Lack of engagement and familiarity of academic staff with the MDGs Lack of monitoring/evaluation/ management information systems e.g. absence of data on social variables apart from gender, and on educational outcomes apart from access.

19. Narrating Higher Education Experiences: Support at University Positive Loan Boards bursaries and scholarships Affirmative action programmes Part-time/ flexible study Independent and peer learning Negative Poor quality lecturers/ lack of availability of lecturers/lack of professionalism Transmission pedagogy Lack of resources e.g. IT, Library Large classes Sexual harassment Gender stereotyping Student unrest, boycotts, strikes Assessment: lack of transparency Favouritism

20. Narrating Higher Education Experiences: Impact of HE Self - confidence Social skills/ capital/ networks Broadening thinking Exposure to a different social group Subject knowledge Independence Social status Maturation Learning skills “University I would say has affected me positively in so many ways (...) I can now stand in front of a whole crowd, talk to people even debate and if I can remember, it is something that I didn’t know how to do. I was so shy of people but now I can say that I can now stand confidently in front of people, interact with people without even being afraid.” Male student, private university, Ghana

21. Narrating Higher Education Experiences: Gender, Poverty, Disability and Age

22. Messages to Universities: Management Information Systematic collection and analysis of data on retention and achievement as well as access, disaggregated by gender, age, SES and disability, for monitoring purposes and strategic planning. Structures of inequality to be related to educational outcomes. The Equity Scorecards could be used to inform this process. Uneven participation rates of female, older and low socio-economic status students in different programmes of study and universities need investigating and monitoring. Monitoring and evaluation - of admissions procedures, including for the purpose of facilitating the admission of students from under-represented groups who meet the minimum entry requirement. This should also be applied to retention, completion and achievement.

23. Messages to Universities: Quality Assurance Quality assurance procedures to be introduced to: Ensure consistent educational experiences and standards for students via service-level agreements Provide student-centred services Monitor staffing and resourcing issues Review admissions procedures Review assessment procedures e.g. double marking, external examining, grade criteria Provide professional development of lecturers e.g. academic practice, working with diverse learning groups, ethical and professional conduct Strengthen codes of professional conduct, especially for sexual harassment, with sanctions for offenders and support mechanisms for victims, including protection against possible ensuing victimisation Provide structured support for ‘non-traditional’ students e.g. academic literacy programmes, access courses, buildings to be made accessible for students with disabilities, peer mentoring and buddy arrangements.

24. Messages to Policymakers Quality assurance - Quality assurance procedures to be introduced/strengthened to enhance monitoring, accountability and quality assurance of public and private HEIs. This should include structured and standardised systems for student feedback. Capacity and resourcing - human and learning resources allocated commensurately with student numbers to ensure quality of the learning environment. Ministries of Education in both countries to initiate and monitor: -Code of professional ethics for teachers in primary and secondary schools; -Professional development for teachers, especially on social inclusion issues; -More robust quality assurance, inspection and audit arrangements of schools; -Adequate supply of trained teachers and facilities particularly for schools in rural and deprived regions and improved access to good quality science teaching, especially for girls.

25. Summing Up: Unequal Geographies of Knowledge Widening participation is often associated with quantitative change. Less emphasis on power relations, qualitative considerations of higher education experiences. Globally, enrolment in higher education is rising. Participation rates from a range of social groups are not increasing. In the globalised knowledge economy, the value of HE needs consideration in terms of wealth distribution, as well as wealth creation.