1. Harmonic Analysis in Learning Theory Jeff Jackson Duquesne University

2. Themes Harmonic analysis is central to learning theoretic results in wide variety of models –Results generally strongest known for learning with respect to uniform distribution Work on learning problems has led to some new harmonic results –Spectral properties of Boolean function classes –Algorithms for approximating Boolean functions

3. Uniform Learning Model Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Example Oracle EX(f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A Uniform Random Examples Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0

4. Circuit Classes Constant-depth AND/OR circuits (AC 0 without the polynomial-size restriction; call this CDC) DNF: depth-2 circuit with OR at root    ... } d levels  v 1 v 2 v 3 v n...  Negations allowed

5. Decision Trees v3v3 v1v1 v2v2 v4v4 0 0 0 1 1

6. v3v3 v1v1 v2v2 v4v4 0 0 0 1 1 x 3 = 0 x = 11001

7. Decision Trees v3v3 v1v1 v2v2 v4v4 0 0 0 1 1 x 1 = 1 x = 11001

8. Decision Trees v3v3 v1v1 v2v2 v4v4 0 0 0 1 1 x = 11001 f(x) = 1

9. Function Size Each function representation has a natural size measure: –CDC, DNF: # of gates –DT: # of leaves Size s F (f) of f with respect to class F is size of smallest representation of f within F –For all Boolean f, s CDC (f) ≤ s DNF (f) ≤ s DT (f)

10. Efficient Uniform Learning Model Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Example Oracle EX(f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A Uniform Random Examples Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0 Time poly(n,s F,1/ε)

11. Harmonic-Based Uniform Learning [LMN]: constant-depth circuits are quasi- efficiently (n polylog(s/ε) -time) uniform learnable [BT]: monotone Boolean functions are uniform learnable in time roughly 2 √n logn –Monotone: For all x, i: f(x| xi=0 ) ≤ f(x| xi=1 ) –Also exponential in 1/ε (so assumes ε constant) –But independent of any size measure

12. Notation Assume f: {0,1} n  {-1,1} For all a in {0,1} n, χ a (x) ≡ (-1) a · x For all a in {0,1} n, Fourier coefficient f(a) of f at a is: Sometimes write, e.g., f({1}) for f(10…0) ^ ^ ^

13. Fourier Properties of Classes [LMN]: f is a constant-depth circuit of depth d and S = { a : |a| < log d (s/ε) } ( |a| ≡ # of 1’s in a ) [BT]: f is a monotone Boolean function and S = { a : |a| < √n / ε) }

14. Spectral Properties

15. Proof Techniques [LMN]: Hastad’s Switching Lemma + harmonic analysis [BT]: Based on [KKL] –Define AS(f) ≡ n · Pr x,i [f(x| xi=0 ) ≠ f(x |xi =1)] –If S = {a : |a| < AS(f)/ε} then Σ a  S f 2 (a) < ε –For monotone f, harmonic analysis + Cauchy- Schwartz shows AS(f) ≤ √n –Note: This is tight for MAJ ^

16. Function Approximation For all Boolean f, For S  {0,1} n, define [LMN]:

17. “The” Fourier Learning Algorithm Given: ε (and perhaps s, d) Determine k such that for S = {a : |a| < k}, Σ a  S f 2 (a) < ε Draw sufficiently large sample of examples to closely estimate f(a) for all a  S –Chernoff bounds: ~n k /ε sample size sufficient Output h ≡ sign(Σ a  S f(a) χ a ) Run time ~ n 2k /ε ^ ~ ^

18. Halfspaces [KOS]: Halfspaces are efficiently uniform learnable (given ε is constant) –Halfspace:  w  R n+1 s.t. f(x) = sign(w · (x º 1)) –If S = {a : |a| < (21/ε) 2 } then  a  S f 2 (a) < ε –Apply LMN algorithm Similar result applies for arbitrary function applied to constant number of halfspaces –Intersection of halfspaces key learning pblm ^

19. Halfspace Techniques [O] (cf. [BKS], [BJTa]): –Noise sensitivity of f at γ is probability that corrupting each bit of x with probability γ changes f(x) –NS γ (f) = ½(1-  a (1-2 γ) |a| f 2 (a)) [KOS]: –If S = {a : |a| < 1/ γ} then  a  S f 2 (a) < 3 NS γ (f) –If f is halfspace then NS ε < 9√ ε ^ ^

20. Monotone DT [OS]: Monotone functions are efficiently learnable given: –ε is constant –s DT (f) is used as the size measure Techniques: –Harmonic analysis: for monotone f, AS(f) ≤ √log s DT (f) –[BT]: If S = {a : |a| < AS(f)/ε} then Σ a  S f 2 (a) < ε –Friedgut:  |T| ≤ 2 AS(f)/ε s.t. Σ A  T f 2 (A) < ε ^ ^

21. Weak Approximators KKL also show that if f is monotone, there is an i such that -f({i}) ≥ log 2 n/n Therefore Pr[f(x) = -χ {i} (x)] ≥ ½ + log 2 n/2n In general, h s.t. Pr[f = h] ≥ ½ + 1/poly(n,s) is called a weak approximator to f If A outputs a weak approximator for every f in F, then F is weakly learnable ^

22. Uniform Learning Model Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Example Oracle EX(f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A Uniform Random Examples Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0

23. Weak Uniform Learning Model Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Example Oracle EX(f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A Uniform Random Examples Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ½ - 1/p(n,s)

24. Efficient Weak Learning Algorithm for Monotone Boolean Functions Draw set of ~n 2 examples For i = 1 to n –Estimate f({i}) Output h ≡ argmax f({i}) (-χ {i} ) ^ ^

25. Weak Approximation for MAJ of Constant-Depth Circuits Note that adding a single MAJ to a CDC destroys the LMN spectral property [JKS]: MAJ of CDC’s is quasi-efficiently quasi-weak uniform learnable – If f is a MAJ of CDC’s of depth d, and if the number of gates in f is s, then there is a set A  {0,1} n such that |A| < log d s ≡ k Pr[f(x) = χ A (x)] ≥ ½ +1/4sn k

26. Weak Learning Algorithm Compute k = log d s Draw ~sn k examples Repeat for |A| < k –Estimate f(A) Until find A s.t. f(A) > 1/2sn k Output h ≡ χ A Run time ~n polylog(s) ^ ^

27. Weak Approximator Proof Techniques “Discriminator Lemma” (HMPST) –Implies one of the CDC’s is a weak approximator to f LMN spectral characterization of CDC Harmonic analysis Beigel result used to extend weak learning to CDC with polylog MAJ gates

28. Boosting In many (not all) cases, uniform weak learning algorithms can be converted to uniform (strong) learning algorithms using a boosting technique ([S], [F], …) –Need to learn weakly with respect to near- uniform distributions For near-uniform distribution D, find weak h j s.t. Pr x~D [h j = f] > ½ + 1/poly(n,s) –Final h typically MAJ of weak approximators

29. Strong Learning for MAJ of Constant-Depth Circuits [JKS]: MAJ of CDC is quasi-efficiently uniform learnable –Show that for near-uniform distributions, some parity function is a weak approximator –Beigel result again extends to CDC with poly- log MAJ gates [KP] + boosting: there are distributions for which no parity is a weak approximator

30. Uniform Learning from a Membership Oracle Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Membership Oracle MEM(f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A f(x)f(x) Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0 x

31. Uniform Membership Learning of Decision Trees [KM] –L 1 (f) ≡  a |f(a)| ≤ s DT (f) –If S = {a : |f(a)| ≥ ε/L 1 (f)} then Σ a  S f 2 (a) < ε –[GL]: Algorithm (memberhip oracle) for finding {a : |f(a)| ≥ θ} in time ~n/θ 6 –So can efficiently uniform membership learn DT –Output h same form as LMN: h ≡ sign(Σ a  S f(a) χ a ) ^ ^^ ^ ^ ~ ^

32. Uniform Membership Learning of DNF [J] –  (distributions D)  χ a s.t. Pr x~D [f(x) = χ a (x)] ≥ ½ + 1/6s DNF –Modified [GL] can efficiently locate such χ a given oracle for near-uniform D Boosters can provide such an oracle when uniform learning –Boosting provides strong learning [BJTb] (see also [KS]): –Modified Levin algo finds χ a in time ~ns 2

33. Uniform Learning from a Classification Noise Oracle Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Classification Noise Oracle EX η (f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A Pr[ ]=1-η Pr[ ]=η Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0 Uniform random x Error rate η > 0

34. Uniform Learning from a Statistical Query Oracle Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Statistical Query Oracle SQ(f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A E U [q(x, f(x))] ± τ Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0 ( q(), τ )

35. SQ and Classification Noise Learning [K] –If F is uniform SQ learnable in time poly(n, s F,1/ε, 1/τ) then F is uniform CN learnable in time poly(n, s F,1/ε, 1/τ, 1/(1-2η)) –Empirically, almost always true that if F is efficiently uniform learnable then F is efficiently uniform SQ learnable (i.e., 1/τ poly in other parameters) Exception: F = PAR n ≡ {χ a : a  {0,1} n, |a| ≤ n}

36. Uniform SQ Hardness for PAR [BFJKMR] –Harmonic analysis shows that for any q, χ a : E U [q(x, χ a (x))] = q(0 n+1 ) + q(a º 1) –Thus adversarial SQ response to (q,τ) is q(0 n+1 ) whenever |q(a º 1)| < τ –Parseval: |q(b º 1)| < τ for all but 1/τ 2 Fourier coefficients –So ‘bad’ query eliminates only poly coefficients –Even PAR log n not efficiently SQ learnable ^^ ^^ ^

37. Uniform Learning from an Attribute Noise Oracle Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Attribute Noise Oracle EX D N (f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A, r~D N Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0 Uniform random x Noise model D N

38. Uniform Learning with Independent Attribute Noise [BJTa]: –LMN algorithm produces estimates of f(a) · E r~D N [χ a (r)] Example application –Assume noise process D N is a product distribution: D N (x) = ∏ i (p i (x i ) + (1-p i )(1-x i )) –Assume p i < 1/polylog n, 1/ε at most quasi-poly(n) (mild restrictions) –Then modified LMN uniform learns attribute noisy AC 0 in quasi-poly time ^

39. Agnostic Learning Model Arbitrary Boolean Function Example Oracle EX(f) Target function f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A Uniform Random Examples Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] minimized

40. Near-Agnostic Learning via LMN [KKM]: –Let f be an arbitrary Boolean function –Fix any set S  {1..n} and fix ε –Let g be any function s.t. Σ a  S g 2 (a) < ε and Pr[f ≠ g] is minimized (call this η) –Then for h learned by LMN by estimating coefficients of f over S: Pr[f ≠ h] < 4η + ε ^

41. Average Case Uniform Learning Model Boolean Function Class F (e.g., DNF) Example Oracle EX(f) D -random f : {0,1} n  {0,1} Learning Algorithm A Uniform Random Examples Hypothesis h:{0,1} n  {0,1} s.t. Pr x~U [f(x) ≠ h(x) ] < ε Accuracy ε > 0

42. Average Case Learning of DT [JSa]: –D : uniform over complete, non-redundant log-depth DT’s –DT efficiently uniform learnable on average –Output is a DT (proper learning)

43. Average Case Learning of DT Technique –[KM]: All Fourier coefficients of DT with min depth d are rational with denominator 2 d –In average-case tree, coefficient f({i}) for at least one variable v i has odd numerator So log(denominator) is min depth of tree –Try all variables at root and find depth of child trees, choosing root with shallowest children –Recurse on child trees to choose their roots ^

44. Average Case Learning of DNF [JSb]: –D : s terms, each term uniform from terms of length log s –Monotone DNF with <n 2 terms and DNF with <n 1.5 terms properly and efficiently uniform learnable on average Harmonic property –In average-case DNF, sign of f({i,j}) (usually) indicates whether v i and v j are in a common term or not ^

45. Summary Most uniform-learning results depend on harmonic analysis Learning theory provides motivation for new harmonic observations Even very “weak” harmonic results can be useful in learning-theory algorithms

46. Some Open Problems Efficient uniform learning of monotone DNF –Best to date for small s DNF is [S], time ~ns log s (based on [BT], [M], [LMN]) Non-uniform learning –Relatively easy to extend many results to product distributions, e.g. [FJS] extends [LMN] –Key issue in real-world applicability

47. Open Problems (cont’d) Weaker dependence on ε –Several algorithms fully exponential (or worse) in 1/ε Additional proper learning results –Allows for interpretation of learned hypothesis