1. Critical Thinking Lesson 2 Arguments and Conclusions – The Indicators Learning Objectives: 1.To be aware of what argument indicators are. 2.To be able to identify some of the main elements of arguments. 3.To gain experience of how to answer exam questions.

2. Quiz on Last Lesson... 1. What is a claim? 2. What two things are needed to make something an argument? 3. Why is this not an argument: ‘Cricket is the best sport there is.’ 4. What is needed to make the claim in question 2 an argument? 5. Give an example of a one-sentence argument.

3. Recap Time Claims are statements which are not backed up with any evidence. Reasons and conclusions, when by themselves, are claims. Claims are easily challenged. Arguments are made up of reasons and a conclusion. Argument notation – R is a reason, C is a claim. Counter-claims make brief reference to an opposing view but then dismisses it. If this is done in more detail, with reasons being added to the counter-claim, it becomes a counter-argument.

4. Identifying Conclusions Read through the ten statements on the worksheet. For each one, try to identify the main conclusion and one reason. You have 10 minutes.

6. Argument Indicators There are sometimes words in arguments which help us to more easily identify elements of the argument. These are called argument indicators. There are two main types – conclusion indicators and reason indicators. Congleton High has very high exam results. Its students are well behaved and work hard. There are also lots of hard-working and skilled teachers. Therefore, it is one of the best schools in Cheshire.

7. Another Example... Congleton High School is one of the best schools in Cheshire. This is because it has very high exam results. Secondly, the students are highly motivated and well behaved. You have two minutes. Work in pairs. Can you think of any other conclusion indicators or reason indicators?

8. A List of Indicators Reason Indicators 1. Because 2. As 3. Since 4. In order to 5. Also Conclusion Indicators 1. Therefore 2. Thus 3. Hence 4. So 5. In conclusion 6. Showing that 7. Demonstrating that 8. Consequently 9. Proving that 10. Establishing that 11. Meaning that 12. Entails that 13. Implies that 14. As a result Sometimes a conclusion may recommend a course of action. In these cases, indicator words include: 1.Must 2.Should 3.Need 4.Ought to

9. The Therefore Test A test that can help you to identify the conclusion of a passage is the ‘therefore test’. Simply insert the word “therefore” into the passage directly before the phrase that you think is the conclusion. If the passage makes sense, then you’ve probably got the right section. If it doesn’t, then you haven’t. Task: Look at the sheet you completed earlier. Try using the ‘Therefore Test’ to check if you picked the correct conclusions.

10. The Because Test A test that can help you to identify the reasons in a passage is the ‘because test’. Simply insert the word “because” into the passage directly before the phrase that you think is a reason. If the passage makes sense, then you’ve probably got the right section. If it doesn’t, then you haven’t. Task: Look at the sheet you completed earlier. Try using the ‘Because Test’ to check if you picked the correct conclusions.

11. Your Task Go through your sheet and underline the argument indicators. There are four in total!

12. Exam Tip! When you’re asked to identify the reasons in a passage, you must give direct quotations. You’re being asked to pick out a specific claim that the passage makes in attempting to prove its conclusion. If you give a rough paraphrase (writing in your own words), then you risk changing the claim, resulting in inaccuracy in your answer and so losing you marks.

15. Critical Thinking Lesson 2, Part 2 Evidence and Examples Learning Objective: 1.To be aware of what evidence and examples are.

16. The Theory... An argument is often unconvincing is the reasons given to support a conclusion are not backed up. How are we to know that the reasons are sound? Congleton High has very high exam results. Therefore, it is one of the best schools in Cheshire. CHS could just be bluffing about its exam results. This is where we use evidence and/or examples to back up our reasons.

17. Keyword Definitions Evidence – something that is used to develop or support a reason. Evidence is often in the form of numerical data, an estimate, or a factual claim. Example – this is one form of evidence. It is used to illustrate or back up a reason. Examples can come in lists. To think about – What different types of evidence are there?

18. Task 1 Congleton High has very high exam results. Therefore, it is one of the best schools in Cheshire. What evidence could we add to support the reason in the argument?

19. Task 2 Congleton is a good place for older people to live. This is because there are plenty of activities for them to do. This argument needs examples of what the activities are. Instead of a full stop after do, we could add something like: eg, for example, such as, including, and then give examples. What examples could we add?

20. Task 3 Read the handout, The argument includes four reasons. Three of these are supported by evidence (EV) or examples (EX). In the brackets, write in whether it is a reason (number from R1 up to R4), evidence or an example. You also need to identify a conclusion (C) and a counter- claim (CC).

21. Task 4 Read the article on Pregnant Prisoners. Answer all of the questions on the answer sheet, apart from question 2. You have 15 minutes.