2. A few minerals exist as single elements - gold, silver and diamonds (carbon). The Hope Diamond However, most minerals are found combined with other elements as inorganic compounds. Rocks, on the other hand, are aggregates of minerals without specific chemical composition. A mineral is a naturally occurring element or inorganic compound found in the earth’s crust. They have a definite chemical composition and a specific crystalline structure.

3. Mineral Resources may be: a. Identified resources of known location, quality and quantity. c. Undiscovered reserves that have the potential to be a resource in the future. MICA QUARTZ b. Reserve resources are mineral that can still be extracted from known areas at a reasonable cost.

4. An ore is a rock with enough economically valuable minerals to be worth the cost of extraction. The metal minerals are used in a variety of manufacturing processes and products. Nonmetallic minerals such as sand and gravel found in sedimentary rocks are used for construction of roads and buildings.

5. Properties of minerals: 1.Crystal structure 2.Hardness on the Mohs scale – based on whether it can scratch the surface of the mineral listed below it on the scale. Talc is the softness mineral at #1 and diamonds are #10. #1#10 3. Luster - interaction with light 4. Color - appearance in light 5. Streak - color of the powder left on unglazed porcelain 6. Cleavage - splitting along various planes 7. Fracture - breaking contrary to its natural planes 8. Specific gravity - relates it mass to the mass of an equal volume of water 9. Chemical composition

6. 1. Surface mining extracts about 90% of the minerals in the U.S. and about 60% of the coal. b. Strip-mining is commonly used for coal to produce electricity. Long strips of soil are removed to expose a seam of minerals such as coal or sand. Mining extracts minerals from the earth. Types of Mining: a. Open - pit mining is used for iron, copper, sand and building stone. It removes rock from borrow pits or quarries enlarged from terracing the land.

7. Tailings are the waste materials left over after separating ore from rock. Wastes leached out of metals found in the host ore that contain chemicals used in the extraction process are called gangue, Cyanide heap extraction is an extremely toxic method used to separate gold. When tailings are pumping into borrow pits, the unextracted minerals can rain and groundwater into acidic and toxic settling ponds. c. Mountaintop removal blasts off huge sections of the landscape, destroying whole ecosystems.

8. 2. Subsurface mining is less disruptive to the environment but it is less economical and very dangerous to miners. a. Hard rock mining is used to excavate hard minerals such as diamonds, gold, copper, silver, zinc and nickel from metamorphic and igneous rocks. b. Soft rock is used for sedimentary rocks containing coal and oil shale.

9. Mineral prices are artificially low because of government subsidies and lack of environmental compliance. The U.S. population doubled from 1950 -1995, but metal production has increased even more. Surface Mining and Reclamation Act 1977 requires mining companies to restore damage from surface mining by grading and replanting. Depletion time for a resource depends on how long it takes to be used up, but it can be extended by recycling, reusing and reducing consumption.

10. The U.S. Canada, Australia, S. Africa, and a few former Soviet Union republics supply most of the world’s 20 most important non-fuel minerals. But, no industrialized country is self sufficient in mineral resources. Japan has the least. The U.S. has no reserves of manganese, chromium, platinum and cobalt that are essential for cars, jet engines, satellites, weapons systems, and even appliances. Improving mining technology, using and cleaning up lower - grade ore, mining the sea, and substitution with plastics and ceramics are all future improvements.

11. Antarctica is the last frontier where mining and oil exploration are banned until 2041. In 1961, 12 nations signed the Antarctica Treaty Systems (ATS) designating the continent for scientific research and other peaceful purposes. NOAA Photo Knowledge of plate tectonics suggests that minerals and fossil fuels could have been formed when the continent was located in warmer latitudes. The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the ATS was signed by 46 nations. It prevents development and mineral resource exploration and provides further protection for the wildlife and environment from marine pollution.

12. Antarctica Sector Map Showing more than 50 stations