1. China 中华人民共和国 Let China sleep. For when China wakes, it will shake the world.” Napoleon

2. Think… “It’s all about the Party”

3. Why China? China is a capitalistic communist country! ◦ Say what? It did a SINGLE TRANSITION…just economic—will it lead to political change? It always has… Authoritarian, one party state Most important economy in the world

4. C HINA : T HE B IG P ICTURE System of Government: Authoritarian Single Party Rule Distribution of Power: Unitary System Electoral System: Is there one? Authoritarian One Party Constitution: 1982 Legislature: Unicameral Current Head of Party and State: President Hu Hintao Head of Government: Prime Minister Wen Jiabao Current Ruling Party: Communist Party Major Political Parties: …..

5. You Must Remember: Communist China is only 60 years old…young China has had 4000 years of authoritarian rule! Communism is a perfect fit for authoritarian historical tradition. China is only half communist—politically Economically China is a free market freak ◦ Problems will arise with rule of law…a free market system MUST have rule of law.

6. P OLITICAL C ULTURE The Chinese Mind

7. I MPORTANCE OF G EOGRAPHY Horseshoe Theory of Chinese Isolation I MPORTANCE OF G EOGRAPHY Horseshoe Theory of Chinese Isolation ONECHINAONECHINA

8. Geography Located on the eastern part of mainland Asia. Shares borders with more than one dozen nations. Bound by physical barriers; helpful in isolating aggressors. Northeast is similar to U.S. plains states. Southern China is semitropical.

9. Political Culture : The Chinese Mind 1. Dynastic Rule for 4,000 YEARS ◦ Taoism: Inner Peace ◦ Confucianism: Social harmony based appropriate behavior within hierarchy. 2. Resistance to Imperialism ◦ 19 th Century to 1911 Revolution 3. Maoism 1949 ◦ Strongly influenced by Marx and Lenin but his version of communism was distinctly Chinese ◦ Whereas Lenin emphasized the the importance of the party vanguard to lead people to revolution and beyond, Mao resisted the inequity implied by Lenin’s beliefs

10. Political Culture : The Chinese Mind ◦ Mao believed in the strength of the peasant, and center his philosophy on these ideals:  Collectivism  Struggle and Activism  Mass Line  Egalitarianism  Self Reliance

11. Political Culture : The Chinese Mind Collectivism ◦ Valuing the good of the community above that of the individual ◦ Cool with peasants, contrary beliefs of scholars (old culture) drawn by individualism Struggle and Activism ◦ Mao encouraged people to actively pursue the values of socialism—something that would require struggle and devotion Mass Line ◦ Two way street of communication between people and gov’t. ◦ Required teaching and listening on everyone’s part ◦ Leaders would communicate their will and the direction to the people, but the people in turn would communicate through the mass line their wisdoms to leaders

12. Political Culture : The Chinese Mind Egalitarianism ◦ Hierarchy was the key organizing principle before 1949—Confucianism ◦ Mao’s emphasis on creating an egalitarian society was in complete opposition to it Self-Reliance ◦ Instead of relying on the elite to give directions, people under Maoist rule were encouraged to rely on their own talents to contribute to their communities

13. Political Culture : The Chinese Mind 4. Deng Xiaoping Theory 1978-1997 ◦ “It doesn’t matter whether a cat is white or black, as long as it catches mice.”  1962 statement reflects Deng’s practical approach to solving China’s problems ◦ In other words, he didn’t worry too much about whether a policy was capitalist or socialist as long as it improved the economy. ◦ So……as long as he (they) they stayed in power, so what…. ◦ Ahh, so it’s all about power…imagine that from a politician.

14. Political Culture : The Chinese Mind 4. Deng Xiaoping Theory 1978-1997 ◦ The result of his leadership was a dramatic turnaround of the Chinese economy through a combination of socialist planning and the capitalist free market ◦ His political and social views remained true to communist tradition—the party should supervise all, and no allowance should be made for individual freedoms and/or democracy

15. Politics in China Current Policy Challenges and Historical Background

16. C URRENT P OLICY C HALLENGES Political corruption, rural unrest, a growing wealth gap, and severe pollution—all related to economic successes of last 20 years Chinese leaders agree to be judged on their ability to foster economic growth and deliver a better material life for citizens. Social safety net gone ◦ “iron rice bowl” gone ◦ Full employment is no longer guaranteed China is member of WTO, which encourages capitalistic reforms “some get rich first”, current government policy wealth is becoming more visible Corruption is a serious problem, especially in the country Villagers rise up against abuses of power

17. C URRENT P OLICY C HALLENGES While economic liberalization has taken place, the government has firmly suppressed organized challenges to the Communist Party Handful of leaders at the top monopolize the authority to choose what inputs from what groups are acceptable The rules of the game are not transparent Hong Kong—clashes over western oriented population who have enjoyed political rights Taiwan—political unification Non-Han minorities, such as the Tibetans, challenge Chinese nationalism

18. S OCIAL C ONDITIONS Huge population ◦ World’s most populous country ◦ Most live in the countryside, but now that is only 57% compared to 85% in 1980 ◦ Rural industrialization and growth of towns ◦ Rural collective industry is the most dynamic industrial sector The population is concentrated in the eastern third of the land ◦ Only ¼ of China’s land is arable ◦ Land shortage/reduction in cultivated area ◦ Land is used for property borders, burial grounds, and bigger houses. ◦ So the problem of feeding the large population is expected to continue China is a multiethnic state ◦ 92 percent of Chinese are ethnically Han, but there are fifty-five recognized ethnic minorities, ranging in number from a few thousand to more than 16 million. ◦ Tibet and Xinjiang (unrest)

19. Population Roughly 1.3 billion and growing. China makes up 20% of the world’s population, but only 10% of its arable land. China has more than 140 cities with a population of one million or more. By the 1970s China’s population was growing 2.8% a year. In the 80s a “One Child Policy” slowed the growth substantially. (to.8%)

20. H ISTORICAL S ETTING “Our long history…” Imperial Rule Unique bureaucratic of scholar-officials Confucianism

24. Imperial China China has roots that are 4,000 years old. Empire was first centralized in 221 B.C. Lasted for twenty centuries until 1911. Strong central government with merit- based bureaucracy. Urbanization started early (as told by Marco Polo of the 1400s.) Majority of the people were poor peasants.

25. I MPERIAL R ULE TO C OMMUNISM Nationalist Party (KMT) ◦ Formed in the 1920s with goal of unifying fractured country ruled by warlords Civil War ◦ Between Nationalists and Communists ◦ Mao Zedong led the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) ◦ Mao and Communists won after World War II PRC founded in 1949

26. Confucianism vs. Maoism Supported the traditional order in China. Mandate of Heaven (responsibility of ruler to the people) ◦ Hierarchical social and political organization; rulers and subjects have unequal positions ◦ Strong family ties ◦ Ideal society based on harmony and obedience ◦ Focus on intellectuals leading the nation. Democratic Centralism (responsibility of ruler to the people) ◦ Vision of an ideal society based on self- reliance and struggle ◦ Egalitaraian socail structure: mass line between rulers and subjects’ ◦ Emphasis on loyalty to the state, Mao

27. Independence Problems made the dynasty weak: ◦ A population explosion ◦ Corruption ◦ Exploitation of peasants ◦ Taiping rebellion (1850-1864) which cost 20 million lives. ◦ Revolution took place in 1911 led by Sun Yatsen.

28. War In 1937 Japan invades China, pushing the Chiang government to the southwestern part of China. The Communists fight the Japanese with Russian support. After World War, civil war resumed until a Communist government was established in 1949, created the People’s Republic of China. The Nationalist government was exiled to Taiwan.

29. MAO 毛泽东 Influenced heavily by Stalin. Instituted a Five Year Plan in 1953 and had some success industrializing China. Collectivization of farms was less successful. Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957—punished those who were counter-revolutionaries. Great Leap Forward of 1957—irrational, wasted resources on programs like steel ovens for village steel production. Claimed 30 million lives. Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966- 1976)—Red Guards tortured and killed “enemies.”

30. H ISTORY OF PRC At first China looked to Soviet Union for implementation strategy--FAILED Created unique directions such as mobilization campaigns through the masses Soviet Like Structures ◦ Central bureaucracy of planning agencies ◦ Nationalized industry ◦ Built collective farms ◦ Tolerated no dissent once directives were articulated Implemented many campaigns to mobilize the mass with compulsory participation Hundred Flowers Campaign ◦ Example of relaxation of control over dissent, only to be overturned “Enemies of the state” declarations common and millions were imprisoned or killed Chinese Soviet Split ◦ 1950s cooling off period between China and Soviet Union ◦ partially due to Soviet unwillingness to help with Chinese nuclear program

31. T HE G REAT L EAP F ORWARD Great Leap Forward (1958-1966) was a utopian effort to transform China into a radical egalitarian society. MAINLY ECONOMIC! Attempt my Mao to free China from Soviet domination Campaign requested that citizens abandon material rewards and needs for moral reasons Emphasis was mainly economic, but was based on four principles: ◦ 1. All-around development 2. Mass Mobilization 3. Political Unanimity and Zeal 4. Decentralization. FAILED: Mao’s efforts ran counter to the traditional political culture (bureaucratic centralism), and the people lacked the skills to contribute to industrialization Failure Lead to Cultural Revolution

32. R ETREAT FROM THE L EAP The Great Leap Forward led to a human catastrophe China retreated from Maoist radicalism Changed the nature of education system to rely on technical expertise and material benefits

33. C ULTURAL R EVOLUTION The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) was a much more profound reform in that it encompassed political and social change, as well as economic In short, Mao was embarrassed by failure of The Great Leap Forward (which was mainly economic) so he broadened the scope of reform to political and social, thinking this would solve his lack of support problem. Important Principles ◦ The Ethic of Struggle ◦ Mass line ◦ Collectivism ◦ Egalitarianism ◦ Unstinging Service to Society

34. C ULTURAL R EVOLUTION A primary goal of the Cultural Revolution was to remove all vestiges of the old China and its hierarchical bureaucracy and emphasis on equality. Campaign driven by anti-Western rhetoric--Western material goods were destroyed (he found an enemy) Citizens were tried for crime of being “capitalist roader” or siding with the West All Chinese were forced to be involved ◦ Enforced by the Red Guard Schools were closed as youth were expected to join the movement FAILED! By late 1960s the citizens had taken the campaign to new height and the country neared anarchy Mao died in 1976

35. Cultural Revolution (1966-76) Purify the party – struggle continues because there are bourgeois restorationist elements within the Party. Red Guard Little Red Book Re-education through labour Ended by the death of Mao & Deng came back…again.

36. C ULTURAL R EVOLUTION : AFTER Mao died in 1976 Gang of Four ruled Deng Xiaoping Theory! ◦ “It doesn’t matter of the cat is black or white, as long as it catches mice.” ◦ Retreated from Cultural Revolution ◦ Changed the direction of economic policy in China ◦ Allowed foreign investment (special economic zones) ◦ Privatized industry ◦ Relaxed some of political controls imposed by Mao

37. Deng Xiaoping Came to power in 1978. (second generation) “It doesn’t matter whether a cat is white or black, as long as it catches mice.” His reforms greatly reduced the role of the government in economics, allowing supply and demand to set prices. He called it a “socialist market economy.” The market remains subordinate to government planning and CCP leadership. In 1980 State owned enterprises controlled 80% of business. Now it is less than 17%.

38. Remaking the Countryside In the mid-1950s Collective Farms were created ◦ About 250 families per farm ◦ Followed the 5YP ◦ Individuals were paid by how much they worked (not how much the crops were worth) ◦ Had to sell crops to state for low prices ◦ During the Great Leap Forward People’s Communes were created

39. Remaking the Countryside In the early 80s the Household Responsibility System replaced the Communal Farms. ◦ Land is owned by the state and contracted to individual families who make all farming decisions. ◦ Led to sharp increases in agricultural productivity and income for farm families

40. Remaking the Countryside Township and Village Enterprises (TVEs) ◦ Factories and business scattered throughout China ◦ Vary greatly in size, and are generally owned and run by the local government & private entrepreneurs. ◦ Operate outside the state plan and make all economic decisions. ◦ TVE boom in the 1980s-90s caused them to be responsible for 30% of economic output.

41. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) Areas set aside to encourage international investment in China in the early ‘80s. China provided incentives such as low taxes, modern infrastructure, and less red tape.

42. Trade/International Interests Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are faster-growing than the overall Chinese economy (also they are hotbeds of crime, speculation, bribery, and corruption. Human rights are an important issue with China’s (Most Favored Nation) MFN status with the US. MFN guarantees the most favorable trade terms such as low tariffs. Many US politicians believe that encouraging the Chinese economy is striking a blow for democratization in China and they turn a blind eye towards human rights violations. China believes that a view of rights that stresses individual liberty above all else is inappropriate because Chinese culture emphasizes social needs and responsibilities.

43. Remaking the Countryside Consequences Decentralized Econ. Decision Making ◦ Local officials who run TVEs act in the best interest of selves (not community) ◦ Farms pay more attention to cash crops than what China needs (grain) Rural Protests ◦ Over high taxes ◦ Corruption ◦ Lack of central government spending ◦ Communal farms used to provide a social safety net, no more. ◦ Anger against the ‘haves’ In March of 2007, 20,000 people rioted against 1,000 police armed with guns and electric cattle-prods. Police cars and buses were burnt. The issue: transportation costs.

44. Problems with Economic Reforms Reformers believe that an iron rice bowl providing cradle to grave coverage have led to poor work motivation and excessive costs for the government and enterprises most social services have been slashed (if you life in a poor area– typically rural and inner China – you’re out of luck) Income and employment are now no longer guaranteed but are more directly tied to individual effort – “from each according to their ability to each according to their work” Unemployment is estimated at 20% of the total labor force. Labor unrest (strikes, slowdowns, demonstrations, sit-ins were all on the rise in the 1990s. (Tiananmen was crushed because the CCP was alarmed at the large number of workers who had joined the protests under the banner of an unauthorized union). Floating populations (including many migrant rural folk) is stressing China’s social services (their presence could be unsetting – it would be much worse without the TVEs) Corruption is on the rise. Because the rule of law is often weaker than personal connections (called guanxi) nepotism and cronyism are rampant. Environmental concerns

46. Four Modernizations Recommended by Zhou Enlai and implemented by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 The Four Modernizations were designed to make China a great economic power by the early 21st century. Essentially stressed economic self-reliance. The PRC decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade by opening up its markets. The Four Modernizations were in the following: ◦ Agriculture ◦ Industry ◦ National Defense ◦ Science and Technology On December 5, 1978 in Beijing, former red guard Wei Jingsheng posted on the Democracy Wall the Fifth Modernization as being "democracy“. He was later jailed for 15 years.

47. The Four Cardinal Principles Stated by Deng Xiaoping in 1979 and are the four issues for which debate was not allowed within the People's Republic of China 1. the principle of upholding the socialist path 2. the principle of upholding the people's democratic dictatorship 3. the principle of upholding the leadership of the Communist Party of China, and 4. the principle of upholding Marxist-Leninist-Mao Zedong thought

48. Mass Line Basic principle of Communism which states that govt. leaders learn best from the experiences of non-Party Workers. ◦ Party takes the ideas and experiences of the workers and makes a better version of them ◦ Returns the better version to the people

49. China in the Global Economy In 1980s China took advantage of their low-wage domestic labor to produce goods that were in demand internationally. By 2004 China was the world’s third largest trading nation, with imports and exports totaling $1.1 trillion. The United States has become one of the PRC’s major trading partners. China is the largest absorber of foreign direct investment. (Coca-Cola, General Motors, Starbucks) China has been admitted into the World Trade Organization, in 2001.

50. Cleavages China is very culturally homogeneous an has a very strong sense of national identity (Middle Kingdom) Cultural homogeneity has saved it from the kind of ethnic or religious violence that has plagued so many countries in the modern world. ◦ Most of the minorities come from the autonomous regions, Tibet, etc., (but they are on the fringes and only account for 8%) China has suffered from identity politics as a legacy of Mao. Mao pitted workers, peasants, and loyal party activist against “capitalist roaders” and other alleged counter- revolutionaries. Glaring inequities between the “haves” and “have-nots” because of the economic miracle. China has more than 200 million people who no longer live in absolute poverty but still only have minimally adequate supplies of food, clothing, and shelter Inequities between the rural and urban populations

51. T HE S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY -S TATE Parallel Universelandia

52. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE “Parliamentary System under single party control” “Nothing really matters but the party” Design Features ◦ The basis of the idea was that the party’s claim to legitimate rule is not based on representation of the preferences of the majority, but on representation of the “historical best interests” of all people—the idea being that the populace does not know its own best interest, but the party does….isn’t that brilliant! ◦ Guardianship and Hierarchy  Describes the relationship between Communist Party & society  Representation of “historical best interests”  Mass line…added by Chinese… “moderates” guardianship

53. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY -S TATE ◦ Party Organization  Democratic Centralism – Leninist principle  This means that democracy exists only at the center of decision making, but once a decision is made no dissent is tolerated.  Centralism never sacrificed to democracy  Refers mainly to consultation: opportunities for discussion, criticism, and proposals in party organizations.  There are official government structures in China, but the real power lies with the party ◦ Two Hierarchies, with Party Leadership  Government structures are more or less duplicated at each level of the political system by Communist Party structures  In principle, there is a division of labor between party and gov’t structures  In practice, two perform similar functions with overlapping responsibilities  But with the party being the main policymaker

54. CCP Individual power, factional maneuvering, and personal connections (guanxi) are more important than titles (Deng never having the highest title) Only 5% of the population are members (50 some million people)

57. Organization of the State “The force at the core leading our cause forward is the CCP” – Mao on page one of the Little Red Book Party members join more for career advancement than because of ideological commitment (something for which Mao is spinning in his grave) China has a unitary system (with the CCP guaranteeing that everything is top/down) Mass line– the party leads, but its leadership is not isolated from the opinions and preferences of the mass public

58. Politburo 24 members who elect the Standing Committee ◦ Top political elite, usually no more than a couple dozen leaders ◦ Most have a responsibility for overseeing policy making in some issue area Standing Committee 7-9 members Each member has executive responsibility for a particular area of policy The composition of this group determines which way China moves Very secret Meetings are rarely announced General secretary presides over both the meetings of the Standing Committee and the Politburo

59. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE : G OVERNMENT S TRUCTURES NPC Standing Committee ◦ When the National Party Congress (NPC) is not in session (almost all the time), the NPC Standing Committee serves as working legislative assembly ◦ 150 members, all reside in Beijing ◦ Meets regularly throughout year ◦ Exercises most formal powers of NPC and prepares agenda for annual NPC plenary sessions.

60. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE : G OVERNMENT S TRUCTURES State Council: Executive Functions ◦ Think… “Cabinet”….or……“Government” ◦ In lawmaking, State Council is center of gov’t activity ◦ Composed the premier, who is head of government, and his cabinet of vice-premiers, state councillors, ministers, auditor general, and secretary general ◦ State Council Standing Committee, which meets twice weekly ◦ As in most parliamentary systems, the bulk of legislation is drafted by specialized ministries and commissions under the direction of the cabinet ◦ President- Head of State – purely ceremonial office

61. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE : P ARTY S TRUCTURES Central Committee ◦ Exercises power of National Party Congress between sessions  190 full members and 150 alternate members ◦ Elected by the National Party Congress ◦ CC elects Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee and party general secretary. ◦ collection of the most powerful several hundred political leaders in the country ◦ Members hold major positions of leadership, as ministers in the state bureaucracy or provincial party leaders. ◦ Membership reflects political power, not confer it ◦ they do not initiate policy but changes in policy or leaders at the political center must be approved by it ◦ they endorse and are responsible to realize party policy

62. Premier (PM) and the Government Premier is formally appointed by the president with the approval of the Congress; however, the CCP really decides who this is going to be. Post has always been held by a member of the party’s most powerful body (the Standing Committee) Premier has a two term limit as does the president. Premier directs the State Council which in theory is appointed by the Congress, functions like the cabinet in a parliamentary system State Council is comprised of the premier, vice premier and the heads of government ministries Dual Role means that the government organizations below the national level are under both the vertical supervision of the next higher level of government and the horizontal supervision of the CCP at their own level (just as in Russia).

63. Premier (PM) and the Government Since the 1980s, government administration in China has become increasingly decentralized as the role of central planning has been reduced and more power has been given to provincial and local authorities (particularly in economic matters) The Bureaucracy is immense in size and scope. There are 30 million cadres (people in positions of authority who are paid by the government or party – but cadres are not necessarily members of the CCP) In the reds vs. experts debate, the shift has been strongly to “experts” since Deng’s reforms started in the late 70s The government has announced a 50% cut in cadres to further increase efficiency in the economy President is Head of State and the Premier is the Head of Govt

64. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE : G OVERNMENT S TRUCTURES National People’s Congress (NPC): Legislative Functions ◦ Elected for five-year terms by delegates in provincial-level congresses and the armed forces ◦ Assemble once annually for a plenary session of about two weeks ◦ Always large body ◦ Formally has extensive powers: amendment of the constitution, passage and amendment of legislation, approval of economic plans,etc. ◦ Is it a rubber-stamp assembly? Was during Maoist years, but now…. ◦ It is still too large and meets too infrequently, but the lawmaking role of the less cumbersome NPC Standing Committee seems to be gaining.

65. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE : P ARTY S TRUCTURES REMEMBER: As in the government hierarchy, while formal power of the Communist Party structures is directly proportional to size, actual impact on policy is inversely proportional to size. ◦ The bigger the size the more formal power ◦ The smaller the size the more REAL power National Party Congress ◦ According to constitution supreme authority is vested in this body ◦ it is too big and meets to infrequently to play a role in significant policy and decision making ◦ meet once every five years ◦ ratify important changes in broad policy orientation already decided by more important smaller party structures ◦ they elect the central committee

66. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE : G OVERNMENT S TRUCTURES Judiciary: ◦ Supreme People’s Court ◦ Supreme People’s Procuratorate  Bridge between public security agencies and the courts Communist Party Leadership ◦ The Communist Party exercises direct leadership over government and legislative functions in a variety of ways ◦ In short, the Chinese system is executive-led government, but with an important difference having to do with the Communist Government.

67. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE Criticism of Legal Practices ◦ Criticisms abound for its legal system ◦ Punishments viewed as too harsh for crimes ◦ Death penalty used widely ◦ Most prosecutions result in guilty verdicts ◦ Criminal proceedings are inquisitorial, meaning “verdict first, trial second” ◦ Political prisoners! ◦ New legality does constrain the state more than ever

68. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE People’s Liberation Army (PLA) ◦ Army, Navy, Air Force ◦ PLA ◦ Does not dictate policy to party leaders, but it is the self-appointed guardian of Chinese sovereignty and nationalism. ◦ Preventing Taiwan’s independence ◦ A decade behind Western military technology Party Dominance ◦ Nomenklatura system  Linchpin of polictical system  The most important mechanism by which the Communist Party exerts control over officials.

69. Military People’s Liberation Army (PLA) is the world’s largest military force Mao “Power flows from the barrel of a gun. Our principle is that the party commands the gun and the gun must never be allowed to command the party” (the second part is often overlooked) Connections to the military have been very important in the power calculus and Byzantine maneuverings that occur in Beijing The PLA is in favor of the economic reforms because they supplement their official budget by converting a number of their factories to the production of consumer goods, running hotels, and discos, and opening up their facilities to tourists.

70. From the Little Red Book Without a people's army the people have nothing Our principle is that the Party commands the gun and the gun must never be allowed to command the Party. Fewer and better troops and simpler administration." Talks, speeches, articles and resolutions should be concise and to the point. Meetings also should not go on too long.

71. Judiciary Supreme People’s Court down through higher, intermediate and basic people’s courts located around the country. Does not exercise judicial review over the government More than 100,000 judges and lawyers have been trained (some abroad) New criminal and civil codes have been necessary to regularize the legal system (which tends to be important if you are pursuing economic goals) In recent years, there has been an enormous surge in the number of lawsuits filed (and often won) by people against business, local officials, and government agencies. Criminal system works swiftly and harshly. In 1997, there was a conviction rate of 99.65% China has become a country where there is rule by law (which the CCP uses to carry out its policies and enforce its rule). ◦ It is not yet a country where there is rule of law in which everyone is subordinate to the law.

72. S TRUCTURE OF THE P ARTY S TATE : P ARTY S TRUCTURES Top Leader and the Succession Problem ◦ Death of leader creates succession problem in most communist countries ◦ There is no formal or generally acknowledged position of second-in-command and no regularized mechanism to chose a new top leader. ◦ 1970s Communist Party elders were reinstated after years of forced retirement under Mao and Cultural Revolution ◦ Central Advisory Commission…bogus new structure for old cronies…dismantled in mid 1990s Party Bureaucracy ◦ The Secretariat monitors the bureaucracy and provides a staff for the Politburo to carry out decisions

73. Other Parties (the loyal non- opposition) Eight non-communist parties exist in the PRC China Democratic League (intellectual party) China Democratic National Construction Association (business party) Less than half a million members in the non-communist parties Do not contest for power or challenge CCP policy Function is to provide advice to the CCP and generate support within their constituencies for the CCP policy Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) meets once a year for about two weeks

74. Political Participation Changes in the Rules ◦ Political participation: was required; now optional ◦ Mao: mass mobilization campaign; contemporary leadership does not attempt to rouse the mass public to realize policy objectives ◦ Rejection of mass mobilization as the dominant mode of political participation  Rather: express opinions and participate through regular, official channels – hotlines, letters to newspaper editors, etc. Local Congress Elections Village Committees Unacceptable Political Participation Protestors and Reformers ◦ Democracy Movement ◦ Tiananmen massacre of June 4, 1989

75. Elections CCP has effective veto power over the election process. It controls the commissions that run elections and it reviews the lists of proposed candidates Direct elections and indirect elections Direct election turnout is heavy (over 90%) All citizens over 18 may vote Since the 80s there have been multiple candidates on the ballot (before the only protest vote was to abstain) Independent candidates have beaten the CCP endorsed candidates (but they had to be approved by the CCP to be put on the ballot in the first place) The most democratic advances in elections have occurred in rural villages where multi-candidate, secret-ballot elections are the norm (although still carried out under the watchful eye of the CCP) The CCP says that multiparty elections would not work well in China because of the country’s low level of education and economic development and its poor communications system. (there’s also the fear of losing power, chaos, and potential civil war to worry about)

76. Political Socialization Mass Media ◦ Ordinary citizens now exposed to news and opinions about public affairs ◦ Hong Kong  Relatively free and critical mass media ◦ Chinese journalists expose government wrongdoings and thwart official efforts to suppress news of disasters. ◦ Chinese leaders reserve the right to shut down publications that in their view go too far. ◦ Internet: 50,000 cyber police; still difficult to monitor Education System ◦ Past: very ideological; persecution of scholars ◦ Today: respect for expertise  Fall 2006 reduced the seven compulsory courses on political ideology and party history to four, in the first major curricular change in twenty-five years.

77. Political Culture From radicalism to “reform and opening” to the outside world Political Knowledge ◦ Not uniformly distributed in China ◦ More active knowledge and interest found in men, the more highly educated, and Chinese with higher incomes. ◦ Beijing  Here people discuss politics very frequently Political Values ◦ Reject every democratic value and support for democratic values generally low ◦ Influence of non-Chinese political socialization is evident ◦ Show an impact of socioeconomic development; urban Chinese are much more supportive of democratic values than are mainland Chinese generally

78. Control over the Government The Executive Branch: there is a premier and a president. The Communist party exercises direct or indirect control over all government organizations and personnel. “The government acts as the agency for carrying out and enforcing policies made by the party.

79. Parties Chinese Communist Party has 70 million members, and thus is the largest political party in the world. All types of people, even private entrepreneurs are members. Women make up less than 20% of the members. 70 million people between the ages of fourteen and twenty-eight make up the Communist Youth league. Non-communist parties: all founded before the CCP came to power; have less than 500,000 members total. They voice their views once a year at the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), under the watch of the Communist party.

80. Policymaking and Implementation Policymaking ◦ Three tiers in policymaking 1.Politburo and its Standing Committee 2.Leading small groups (LSGs) 3.Relevant party departments and government ministries ◦ From agenda setting to implementing regulations  Five stages: agenda setting; inter-agency review; Politburo approval; NPC review, debate, and passage; and the drafting of implementing regulations  Two most important states: interagency review and drafting of implementing regulations

81. Policy Performance Economic Growth ◦ Success story; opening up to foreign trade and investment  Trade balances  Scarcity prices versus government controlled or two-track pricing system ◦ Decentralization ◦ Reform of SOEs Environmental Degradation ◦ Economic growth = serious environmental damage ◦ Health and productivity costs ◦ “first development, then environment” ◦ EPBs local environmental protection bureaus ◦ State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA)  Underfunded

82. Policy Performance Population Control ◦ Little regulation during Maoist years; 1978 population close to a billion ◦ One-child family policy  State-sponsored family planning added to the constitution  Ideal family had one child  Most couples required to stop childbearing after one or two births  Married couples in urban areas restricted to one child  In rural areas, married couples are subject to rules that differ across provinces. In some, two children permitted. In others, only one child permitted; in most provinces, a second child is permitted only if the first is a girl.  Difficult to implement; many sons ideal: a married daughter joins the household of her husband, while a married son remains in the household to support aging parents. Policy implementation ◦ Carrots and sticks utilized to encourage one child policy Perverse outcomes ◦ Shortage of girls ◦ Sex-selective abortions

83. Hong Kong 1842 and 1860, the island of Hong Kong, and adjacent territory on the Chinese mainland, were ceded by treaty to the British in perpetuity. ◦ Due to result of wars fought to impose trade on China ◦ For nearly a century, China was a British colony. 1984, the Chinese communist authorities elaborated the principle of “one country, two systems” applicable to Hong Kong after 1997 ◦ Hong Kong reverted to Chinese sovereignty in 1997 but would continue to enjoy a “high degree of autonomy.” ◦ Chinese authorities hope the outcome will woo Taiwan back to the PRC, too.

84. Taiwan Governed by the Nationalists as the Republic of China since 1945 ◦ 100 miles off the east coast of the Chinese mainland. ◦ Communist “liberation” of Taiwan ◦ Korean war; American interests in the security of Taiwan Two major events affected Taiwan’s status ◦ Lost its membership in the U.N. and its seat on the Security Council to China in 1971 ◦ U.S. recognized China diplomatically, downgrading the relationship with Taiwan to one of unofficial liaison Today fewer than 30 countries recognize Taiwan. Taiwan’s public does not support unification.

85. China as a Democratic nation? Negative: China has a long history of bureaucratic and authoritarian rule. Negative: Confucian teaching supports authoritarian rule. Negative: the power of the Communist party is still strong. Positive: Taiwan has been a success; not incompatible with a Confucian teaching. Positive: China has a higher literacy rate, more extensive industrialization and urbanization, a faster rate of economic growth, and a larger middle class than most nations at its level of economic development. Postive: decentralization of political and economic power to local governments; younger better educated leaders; increasing role of the National People’s Congress.

86. What do you think?