2.  Large nuclei (> 92 protons) are unstable and usually results in radioactive decay.  Very rarely a large nucleus will split up spontaneously into two smaller nuclei.  This splitting of the nucleus is called fission and when it happens by itself we call it spontaneous fission.

3.  We can imagine large unstable nuclei as drops of liquid.  Nuclei are not tidy and neatly arranged rows of neutrons and protons.  The strong nuclear force acts between neighbouring nucleons.

4.  The nucleons are not linked with the same neighbours all the time. Instead they are constantly swapping about.  However enough of the nucleons are linked to stop the repulsive electromagnetic force tearing the nucleus apart.

5.  If the drop is too large, the strong force is too weak to hold the drop together, so it can split into two drops all by itself.  The limits the number of nucleons that a nucleus can contain (limits number of elements).

6.  If you fire neutrons at the drop it will make it oscillate.  The drop can split in two if the induced oscillations are large enough.

7.  Nuclear fission has NOTHING whatever to do with radioactive decay. However the parent nucleus may decay by normal radioactive decay processes, and the daughter nuclei may well be radioactive. This is a common bear trap.

8.  We can induce fission in large nuclei such as uranium-235. The most common isotope of uranium, U-238, does not split easily, but the 235 isotope does.  We induce fission by encouraging the nucleus to split with a “thermal” neutron. The neutron has to have the right kinetic energy…  Thermal because close to kinetic energies of moderator molecules.

9.  Too little kinetic energy means that the neutron will bounce off the nucleus.  Too much kinetic energy means that the neutron will go right through the nucleus.  Just right means that the neutron will be captured by the strong force, which is attractive between nucleons. The neutron gives the nucleus enough energy to resonate, and this will make the nucleus neck as shown above

10.  The nucleus flies apart into a number of fragments, leaving on average three neutrons left over.  These too are able to induce other nuclei to split. Each neutron spawns three more neutrons in each fission, so we get a chain reaction.

11.  The fission products vary from fission to fission, a wide range of isotopes are produced.  For example the nucleus could split this way:-  Or it could split this way:-

12.  We can calculate the energy released by finding the mass defect.  Let’s take the top example, the original mass:-  And the mass after fission is:-  Show that the energy released per fission is about 180 MeV (huge compared to chemical reactions).

13.  The graph (red line) shows the relative number of fission products versus nucleon number.  The most common products are around A=90 and A=140.

14.  There is a mass defect in the products of the fission so energy is given out.  In an uncontrolled chain reaction, the energy is given out in the form of a violent explosion, which is many times more powerful than the explosive decomposition of TNT.  In an atomic bomb, the mass that is converted to energy is about 20 grams.

15.  The daughter fragments often have too many neutrons and are therefore highly unstable and decay by radioactivity.  These form the dangerous fall-out of an atomic bomb detonation, or the waste from a nuclear power station.  May be used for things like tracers but often needs to be disposed of carefully.

16.  In fusion, light nuclei are joined together, increasing the binding energy per nucleon. An example is the p-p chain in the Sun:-  This will result in lots of energy being given out  About 25 MeV for a helium nucleus so 6 MeV per nucleon, but it is easier said than done…

17.  Data to use:  Mass of deuterium nucleus = 3.3425 × 10 -27 kg  Mass of tritium nucleus = 6.6425 × 10 -27 kg  Mass of helium nucleus = 6.6465 ×10 -27 kg  Mass of a neutron = 1.675 × 10 -27 kg  What is the energy in J and eV released in this reaction above?

18.  Mass on the left hand side = 3.3425 × 10 -27 kg + 6.6425 × 10 -27 kg = 9.985 × 10 -27 kg (P)  Mass on right hand side = 6.6465 ×10 -27 kg + 1.675 × 10 -27 kg = 8.3215 × 10 -27 kg (P)  Mass deficit = 9.985 × 10 -27 kg - 8.3215 × 10 -27 kg = 1.6635 × 10 -27 kg (P)  Energy = 1.6635 × 10 -27 kg × (3.00 × 10 8 m/s) 2 = 1.50 × 10 -11 J (P)  Energy in eV = 1.50 × 10 -11 J / 1.6 × 10 -19 = 9.4 × 10 8 eV = 940 MeV (P)

19.  It is not simply a case of sticking some protons together and shaking it up. Each nucleus has to have sufficient energy to:  Overcome electrostatic repulsion from the protons.  Get close enough so that the attractive force of the strong force holds them together.

20.  This means that the gases have to be heated to a very high temperature, about 8 × 10 9 K.  As all matter at this temperature exists as an ionised gas (plasma), it has to be confined in a very small space by powerful magnetic fields.  Fusion has occurred, but the energy put in to cook the gases enough to make them fuse is far greater than the energy got out by a fusion reaction.

21.  Compared to the speed of many particles in nuclear and particle physics, this speed is pretty sluggish.  A common bear trap is to say that nuclei are smashed to pieces by neutrons. The neutrons tickle the nucleus; they do not hammer it.  Some students confuse fission and fusion and use the “fussion”. It will be marked wrong in the exam, so don’t.

22.  The only use that fusion has been put to is in a thermonuclear device. The third bomb from the left is a genuine thermonuclear device, now on display (with the nasty bits taken out). The amount of hydrogen required in the bomb below (430 kilo-tonnes) would fill a small party balloon.

24.  Some scientists claim to have found fusion at low temperatures. They had a strange chemical reaction, but it was not fusion.  Fusion, if it could be made to work, has a number of advantages over fission:  Greater power per kilogram of fuel used;  Raw materials are cheap and readily available  No radioactive elements are made by the reaction.  The downside is that materials that make up the reactor will be irradiated with neutrons which will make them radioactive.

25.  Atomic Mass Unit: 1/12th the mass of a carbon atom  Mass defect: Difference between the mass of nucleons separately and together within a nucleus. Difference between the two sides of a nuclear interaction equation. Energy worked out by E = mc 2  Binding Energy: Energy equivalent of the mass defect in a nucleus. Binding energy per nucleon increases in more stable nuclei.  Fission Splitting of a nucleus. Rarely spontaneous. Occurs after the nucleus has been tickled with a neutron  Fusion Joining together of two light nuclei to make a heavier nucleus.