1. BIO 3A Fall 2011 Chapter 24 Origin of Species

2. Overview: That “Mystery of Mysteries” In the Galápagos Islands Darwin discovered plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth

4. Speciation, the origin of new species, is at the focal point of evolutionary theory Evolutionary theory must explain how new species originate and how populations evolve Microevolution consists of changes in allele frequency in a population over time Macroevolution refers to broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level

5. Concept 1: The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation Species is a Latin word meaning “kind” or “appearance” Biologists compare morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and DNA sequences when grouping organisms

6. The Biological Species Concept The biological species concept states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other populations Gene flow between populations holds the phenotype of a population together

7. Figure 24.2 (a) Similarity between different species (b) Diversity within a species

8. Reproductive Isolation Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between different species Reproductive isolation can be classified by whether factors act before or after fertilization

9. Figure 24.3_a Prezygotic barriers Habitat Isolation Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mechanical Isolation Gametic Isolation Reduced Hybrid Viability Reduced Hybrid Fertility Hybrid Breakdown Individuals of different species MATING ATTEMPT FERTILIZATION VIABLE, FERTILE OFFSPRING Postzygotic barriers (a)(c)(e) (d) (b) (g) (k) (h) (i) (j) (l) (f)

10. Prezygotic barriers block fertilization from occurring by: –Impeding different species from attempting to mate –Preventing the successful completion of mating –Hindering fertilization if mating is successful

11. Habitat isolation: Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers

12. Temporal isolation: Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes

13. Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers

14. Mechanical isolation: Morphological differences can prevent successful mating

15. Gametic Isolation: Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species

16. Postzygotic barriers prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult: –Reduced hybrid viability –Reduced hybrid fertility –Hybrid breakdown

17. Reduced hybrid viability: Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid’s development

18. Reduced hybrid fertility: Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile

19. Figure 24.3l (l)

20. Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile

21. Limitations of the Biological Species Concept The biological species concept cannot be applied to fossils or asexual organisms (including all prokaryotes) The biological species concept emphasizes absence of gene flow However, gene flow can occur between distinct species –For example, grizzly bears and polar bears can mate to produce “grolar bears”

22. Figure 24.4 Grizzly bear (U. arctos) Polar bear (U. maritimus) Hybrid “grolar bear”

23. Figure 24.4a Grizzly bear (U. arctos)

24. Figure 24.4b Polar bear (U. maritimus)

25. Figure 24.4c Hybrid “grolar bear”

26. Other Definitions of Species Other species concepts emphasize the unity within a species rather than the separateness of different species The morphological species concept defines a species by structural features –It applies to sexual and asexual species but relies on subjective criteria

27. The ecological species concept views a species in terms of its ecological niche –It applies to sexual and asexual species and emphasizes the role of disruptive selection The phylogenetic species concept defines a species as the smallest group of individuals on a phylogenetic tree –It applies to sexual and asexual species, but it can be difficult to determine the degree of difference required for separate species

28. Concept 2: Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation Speciation can occur in two ways: –Allopatric speciation –Sympatric speciation

29. Figure 24.5 (a) (b) Allopatric speciation. A population forms a new species while geographically isolated from its parent population. Sympatric speciation. A subset of a population forms a new species without geographic separation.

30. Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation In allopatric speciation, gene flow is interrupted or reduced when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations –For example, the flightless cormorant of the Galápagos likely originated from a flying species on the mainland

31. The Process of Allopatric Speciation The definition of barrier depends on the ability of a population to disperse –For example, a canyon may create a barrier for small rodents, but not birds, coyotes, or pollen

32. Figure 24.6 A. harrisii A. leucurus

33. Separate populations may evolve independently through mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift Reproductive isolation may arise as a result of genetic divergence –For example, mosquitofish in the Bahamas comprise several isolated populations in different ponds

34. Figure 24.7 (a) Under high predation (b) Under low predation

35. Evidence of Allopatric Speciation 15 pairs of sibling species of snapping shrimp (Alpheus) are separated by the Isthmus of Panama These species originated 9 to 13 million years ago, when the Isthmus of Panama formed and separated the Atlantic and Pacific waters

36. Figure 24.8 A. formosus Atlantic Ocean A. nuttingi Isthmus of Panama Pacific Ocean A. panamensisA. millsae

37. Regions with many geographic barriers typically have more species than do regions with fewer barriers Reproductive isolation between populations generally increases as the distance between them increases –For example, reproductive isolation increases between dusky salamanders that live further apart

38. Degree of reproductive isolation Geographic distance (km) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

39. Barriers to reproduction are intrinsic; separation itself is not a biological barrier

40. EXPERIMENT RESULTS Initial population of fruit flies (Drosophila pseudoobscura) Some flies raised on starch medium Mating experiments after 40 generations Some flies raised on maltose medium Female Starch Maltose Male Maltose Starch Number of matings in experimental group 22 9 8 20 Female Starch population 1 Male Starch population 2 Number of matings in control group 18 15 12 15 Starch population 2 Starch population 1

41. Figure 24.10a EXPERIMENT Initial population of fruit flies (Drosophila pseudoobscura) Some flies raised on starch medium Mating experiments after 40 generations Some flies raised on maltose medium

42. Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation In sympatric speciation, speciation takes place in geographically overlapping populations

43. Polyploidy Polyploidy is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division Polyploidy is much more common in plants than in animals An autopolyploid is an individual with more than two chromosome sets, derived from one species

44. An allopolyploid is a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species

45. Figure 24.11-4 Species A 2n = 6 Species B 2n = 4 Normal gamete n = 3 Meiotic error; chromosome number not reduced from 2n to n Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes Hybrid with 7 chromosomes Unreduced gamete with 7 chromosomes Normal gamete n = 3 New species: viable fertile hybrid (allopolyploid) 2n = 10

46. Many important crops (oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, and wheat) are polyploids

47. Habitat Differentiation Sympatric speciation can also result from the appearance of new ecological niches For example, the North American maggot fly can live on native hawthorn trees as well as more recently introduced apple trees

48. Sexual Selection Sexual selection can drive sympatric speciation Sexual selection for mates of different colors has likely contributed to speciation in cichlid fish in Lake Victoria

49. Figure 24.12 Normal light Monochromatic orange light P. pundamilia P. nyererei EXPERIMENT

50. Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation: A Review In allopatric speciation, geographic isolation restricts gene flow between populations Reproductive isolation may then arise by natural selection, genetic drift, or sexual selection in the isolated populations Even if contact is restored between populations, interbreeding is prevented

51. In sympatric speciation, a reproductive barrier isolates a subset of a population without geographic separation from the parent species Sympatric speciation can result from polyploidy, natural selection, or sexual selection

52. Concept 3 Hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation A hybrid zone is a region in which members of different species mate and produce hybrids Hybrids are the result of mating between species with incomplete reproductive barriers

53. Patterns Within Hybrid Zones A hybrid zone can occur in a single band where adjacent species meet –For example, two species of toad in the genus Bombina interbreed in a long and narrow hybrid zone

54. Figure 24.13 EUROPE Yellow-bellied toad, Bombina variegata Fire-bellied toad range Hybrid zone Yellow-bellied toad range Fire-bellied toad, Bombina bombina Frequency of B. variegata-specific allele Yellow-bellied toad range Hybrid zone Fire-bellied toad range Distance from hybrid zone center (km) 40 0.99 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.01 30 20 100 20

55. Hybrids often have reduced fitness compared with parent species The distribution of hybrid zones can be more complex if parent species are found in patches within the same region

56. Hybrid Zones over Time When closely related species meet in a hybrid zone, there are three possible outcomes: –Reinforcement –Fusion –Stability

57. Figure 24.14-4 Gene flow Population Barrier to gene flow Isolated population diverges Hybrid zone Hybrid individual Possible outcomes: Reinforcement OR Fusion Stability

58. Reinforcement: Strengthening Reproductive Barriers The reinforcement of barriers occurs when hybrids are less fit than the parent species Over time, the rate of hybridization decreases Where reinforcement occurs, reproductive barriers should be stronger for sympatric than allopatric species –For example, in populations of flycatchers, males are more similar in allopatric populations than sympatric populations

59. Figure 24.15 Females choosing between these males: Females choosing between these males: Sympatric pied male Sympatric collared male Allopatric pied male Allopatric collared male (none) Female mate choice Own species Own species Other species Other species Number of females 28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0

60. Fusion: Weakening Reproductive Barriers If hybrids are as fit as parents, there can be substantial gene flow between species If gene flow is great enough, the parent species can fuse into a single species For example, researchers think that pollution in Lake Victoria has reduced the ability of female cichlids to distinguish males of different species This might be causing the fusion of many species

61. Figure 24.16 Pundamilia nyererei Pundamilia pundamilia Pundamilia “turbid water,” hybrid offspring from a location with turbid water

62. Stability: Continued Formation of Hybrid Individuals Extensive gene flow from outside the hybrid zone can overwhelm selection for increased reproductive isolation inside the hybrid zone

63. Concept 4: Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes Many questions remain concerning how long it takes for new species to form, or how many genes need to differ between species

64. The Time Course of Speciation Broad patterns in speciation can be studied using the fossil record, morphological data, or molecular data

65. Patterns in the Fossil Record The fossil record includes examples of species that appear suddenly, persist essentially unchanged for some time, and then apparently disappear Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould coined the term punctuated equilibria to describe periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change The punctuated equilibrium model contrasts with a model of gradual change in a species’ existence

66. Figure 24.17 (a) Punctuated pattern Time (b) Gradual pattern

67. Speciation Rates The punctuated pattern in the fossil record and evidence from lab studies suggest that speciation can be rapid –For example, the sunflower Helianthus anomalus originated from the hybridization of two other sunflower species

68. Figure 24.19 H. annuus gamete H. petiolarus gamete F 1 experimental hybrid (4 of the 2n = 34 chromosomes are shown) EXPERIMENT RESULTS Chromosome 1 H. anomalus Chromosome 2 H. anomalus Experimental hybrid

69. The interval between speciation events can range from 4,000 years (some cichlids) to 40 million years (some beetles), with an average of 6.5 million years

70. Studying the Genetics of Speciation A fundamental question of evolutionary biology persists: How many genes change when a new species forms? Depending on the species in question, speciation might require the change of only a single allele or many alleles –For example, in Japanese Euhadra snails, the direction of shell spiral affects mating and is controlled by a single gene

71. In monkey flowers (Mimulus), two loci affect flower color, which influences pollinator preference Pollination that is dominated by either hummingbirds or bees can lead to reproductive isolation of the flowers In other species, speciation can be influenced by larger numbers of genes and gene interactions

72. Typical Mimulus lewisii (a) Typical Mimulus cardinalis (c) M. lewisii with an M. cardinalis flower-color allele (b) M. cardinalis with an M. lewisii flower-color allele (d) Figure 24.20

73. From Speciation to Macroevolution Macroevolution is the cumulative effect of many speciation and extinction events