1. Chapter 4 Understanding research philosophies and approaches

2. Understanding research philosophies and approaches
By end of this chapter you should be able to:
Define the key terms ontology, epistemology and explain their relevance to business research;
Explain the relevance for business research of philosophical perspectives such as positivism, realism, pragmatism, and interpretivism;
understand the main research paradigms which are significant for business research;
Distinguish between main research approaches; deductive and inductive;
State your own epistemological and axiological positions.

3. Figure 4.1 The research ‘onion’
Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

4. Understanding your research philosophy (1)
‘Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge’
Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

5. Understanding your research philosophy (2)
Thinking about research philosophy
Ontology: is concerned with nature of reality.
Raise the questions of the assumptions researchers have about the way the world operates and commitment held to particular views.

6. Ontology
The first aspect of ontology we discuss is objectivism. This portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social actors concerned with their existence.
The second aspect, subjectivism holds that social phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their existence

7. Ontology
Blaikie (1993) describes the root definition of ontology as ‘the science or study of being’ and develops this description for the social sciences to encompass ‘claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other’.
In short, ontology describes our view (whether claims or assumptions) on the nature of reality, and specifically, is this an objective reality that really exists, or only a subjective reality, created in our minds.

8. Ontology
For the everyday example, they use the example of a workplace report – asking one to question whether it describes what is really going on, or only what the author thinks is going on.
They go on to highlight the complexity that is introduced when considering phenomena such as culture, power or control, and whether they really exist or are simply an illusion, further extending the discussion as to how individuals (and groups) determine these realities –
does the reality exist only through experience of it (subjectivism), or does it exist independently of those who live it (objectivism).

9. Epistemology
It concerns what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field of study.
Closely coupled with ontology and its consideration of what constitutes reality, epistemology considers views about the most appropriate ways of enquiring into the nature of the world (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson, 2008) and
‘what is knowledge and what are the sources and limits of knowledge’ (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2008).
Questions of epistemology begin to consider the research method, and Eriksson and Kovalainen go on to discuss how epistemology defines how knowledge can be produced and argued for.

10. Epistemology
Blaikie (1993) describes epistemology as ‘the theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge’ expanding this into a set of claims or assumptions about the ways in which it is possible to gain knowledge of reality, how what exists may be known, what can be known, and what criteria must be satisfied in order to be described as knowledge.
Chia (2002) describes epistemology as ‘how and what it is possible to know’ and the need to reflect on methods and standards through which reliable and verifiable knowledge is produced.

11. Epistemology
Hatch and Cunliffe (2006) summarise epistemology as ‘knowing how you can know’ and expand this by asking:
how is knowledge generated;
what criteria discriminate good knowledge from bad knowledge; and
how should reality be represented or described.
They go on to highlight the inter-dependent relationship between epistemology and ontology, and how one both informs, and depends upon, the other.

12. Axiology
Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgments about value.
Although this may include values we posess in the fields of aesthetics and ethics, it is the process of social enquiry with which we are concerned here.
The role that your own values play in all stages of the research process is of great importance if you wish your research results to be credible.

13. Axiology
Choosing one topic rather than another suggests that you think one of the topics is more important.
Your choice of philosophical approach is a reflection of your values as is your choice of data collection techniques.
For example, to conduct a study where you place great importance in data collected through interview work suggests that you value personal interaction with your respondents more highly than their anonymous views expressed through survey data.

14. Understanding your research philosophy (4)
Aspects of philosophy
Positivism - the stance of the natural scientist
Realism direct and critical realism
Interpretivism – researchers as ‘social actors’
Axiology – studies judgements about value

15. Positivism
Positivism can be defined as “research approaches that employ empirical methods, make extensive use of quantitative analysis, or develop logical calculi to build formal explanatory theory”

16. Realism
Is another philosophical position which relates to scientific enquiry.
The essence of realism is that what the senses show us as reality is the truth; that objects have an existence independent of the human mind.
In this sense, realism is opposed to idealism, the theory that only the mind and its contents exist

17. Direct realism and critical realism
It says that what you see is what you get: what we experience through our senses portrays the world accurately.
critical realism: critical realists argue that we experience are sensations, the images of the things in the real world, not the things directly.
Critical realists point out how often our senses deceive us.

18. Interpretivism
Interpretivisim advocates it is necessary for the researcher to understand differences between humans in our role as social actors.
This emphasizes the differences between conducting research among people rather than objects such as trucks and computers.

19. Interpretivisim
Interpretive research is concerned with the meanings that people attach to norms, rules, and values that regulate their interactions.
Care is taken not to impose a previous understanding of norms, rules, and values on others but rather to understand their beliefs and actions from their point of view.
The focus is not only on what they tell us directly about the reasons for their beliefs and actions but also on the social practices that underlie them.
Social practice gives meaning to social action

20. Pragmatism
Pragmatism holds that the most important determinant of the epistemology, ontology, axiology adopted is the research question.

21. Research paradigms Definition
‘A way of examining social phenomenon from which particular understandings of these phenomena can be gained and explanations attempted’
Saunders et al. (2009)

22. Research Approaches (1)
Deduction
5 sequential stages of testing theory
Deducing a hypothesis
Expressing the hypothesis operationally
Testing the operational hypothesis
Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry
Modifying the theory (if necessary)
Adapted from Robson (2002)

23. Research Approaches (2)
Characteristics of Deduction
Explaining causal relationships between variables
Establishing controls for testing hypotheses
Independence of the researcher
Concepts operationalized for quantitative measurement
Generalisation

24. Research Approaches (3)
Induction
Building theory by –
Understanding the way human build their world
Permitting alternative explanations of what’s going on
Being concerned with the context of events
Using more qualitative data
Using a variety of data collection methods

25. Choosing your research approach
The right choice of approach helps you to
Make a more informed decision about the research design
Think about which strategies will work for your research topic
Adapt your design to cater for any constraints
Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

26. Combining research approaches
Things worth considering
The nature of the research topic
The time available
The extent of risk
The research audience – managers and markers

27. Deductive and Inductive research
Major differences between these approaches
Saunders et al, (2009)
Table 4.2 Major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research

28. Summary: Chapter 4 Research philosophy
relates to the development of knowledge and
the nature of that knowledge
contains important assumptions about the way in which you view the world

29. Three major ways of thinking about research philosophy
Summary: Chapter 4
Three major ways of thinking about research philosophy
Epistemology
Ontology – objectivism and subjectivism
Axiology

30. Summary: Chapter 4
Social science paradigms can generate fresh insights into real-life issues and problems
Four of the paradigms are:
Functionalist Radical humanist
Interpretive Radical structuralist

31. The two main research approaches are
Summary: Chapter 4
The two main research approaches are
Deduction - theory and hypothesis are developed and tested
Induction – data are collected and a theory developed from the data analysis

32. Chapter 5 Formulating the research design

33. The Process of Research Design
Research choices
Research strategies
Time horizons

34. The research design needs
Clear objectives derived from the research question
To specify sources of data collection
To consider constraints and ethical issues
Valid reasons for your choice of design

35. Classification of the research purpose
Exploratory research
is a valuable means of finding out ‘what is happening to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light’.
Useful if you wish to clarify your understanding of a problem, such as if you are unsure of precise nature of the problem.
It may well be that time is well spent on exploratory research, as it may show that the research is not worth pursuing!

36. Explanatory
There are three principal ways of conducting explanatory research:
A search of the literature;
Interviewing ‘experts’ in the subject;
Conducting focus group interviews.

37. Descriptive studies
The object of descriptive research is ‘ to ‘portray an accurate profile of persons, events or situations’.
This may be an extension of, or a forerunner to a piece of exploratory research or, more often, a piece of explanatory research.
It is necessary to have a clear picture of the phenomena on which you wish to collect data prior to collection of data.

38. Explanatory research
Studies that establish causal relationships between variables may be termed explanatory research.
The emphasis her is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationship between variables.

39. Research Strategies
Experiment Action research Grounded theory Survey Ethnography Case study Archival research

40. An experiment will involve
Research Strategies
An experiment will involve
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis
Selection of samples from know populations
Random allocation of samples
Introduction of planned intervention
Measurement on a small number of dependent variables
Control of all other variables

41. Research Strategies Survey: key features Popular in business research
Perceived as authoritative
Allows collection of quantitative data
Data can be analysed quantitatively
Samples need to be representative
Gives the researcher independence
Structured observation and interviews can be used

42. Case Study: key features
Research Strategies
Case Study: key features
Provides a rich understanding of a real life context
Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data
A case study can be categorised in four ways
and based on two dimensions:
single case v. multiple case
holistic case v. embedded case
Yin (2003)

43. Action research: key features
Research Strategies
Action research: key features
Research IN action - not ON action
Involves practitioners in the research
The researcher becomes part of the organisation
Promotes change within the organisation
Can have two distinct foci (Schein, 1999) –
the aim of the research and the needs of the sponsor

44. Research Strategies Grounded theory: key features
Theory is built through induction and deduction
Helps to predict and explain behaviour
Develops theory from data generated by
observations
Is an interpretative process, not a logico- deductive one
Based on Suddaby (2006)

45. Ethnography: key features
Research Strategies
Ethnography: key features
Aims to describe and explain the social world inhabited by the researcher
Takes place over an extended time period
Is naturalistic
Involves extended participant observation

46. Archival research: key features
Research Strategies
Archival research: key features
Uses administrative records and documents as the principal sources of data
Allows research questions focused on the past
Is constrained by the nature of the records and documents

47. The role of the practitioner-researcher
Research Strategies
The role of the practitioner-researcher
Key features
Research access is more easily available
The researcher knows the organisation
Has the disadvantage of familiarity
The researcher is likely to their own assumptions
and preconceptions
The dual role requires careful negotiation

48. Multiple research methods
Research choices
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.4 Research choices

49. Multiple research methods
Reasons for using mixed method designs:
Triangulation
Facilitation
Complementarity
Generality
Aid interpretation
Study different aspects
Solving a puzzle
Source: developed from Bryman (2006)

50. Select the appropriate time horizon
Time Horizons
Select the appropriate time horizon
Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal studies

51. Credibility of research findings
Important considerations
Reliability
Validity
Generalisability
Logic leaps and false assumptions

52. Research design ethics
Remember
‘The research design should not subject the research population to embarrassment, harm or other material disadvantage’
Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

53. Research projects can be categorised as
Summary: Chapter 5
Research design turns a research question and objectives into a project that considers
Strategies Choices Time horizons
Research projects can be categorised as
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
Research projects may be
Cross-sectional Longitudinal

54. Summary: Chapter 5 Important considerations
The main research strategies may combined in the same project
The opportunities provided by using multiple methods
The validity and reliability of results
Access and ethical considerations

55. Developing a Methodological Framework
GreTIA Project

56. Motivation- CHANGE
Integrated transportation and energy model framework
(iTEAM, MIT - TRANSPORTNET 2009 )

57. Research Objectives Study the Northern Aegean region
Plan an innovative green insular transport system by:
optimising various appropriate resources (data collection, analytical tools)
mobilising various transport modes and technologies
Evaluate the environmental, economic and social impact of green transport policies
Social objectives
familiarize residents and tourists with operating practices of green transport
cultivate new attitudes and behavior of travelers for green transport modes
increase local prosperity, happiness, and sustainable development

58. Research Objectives for RESIDENTS
Identify and quantify the factors that affect travelers decision making process towards:
Car ownership;
Residential/Workplace location;
Mode choice; and
Destination choice.
Investigate individual activities and travel patterns.

59. Behavior
Mismatch between residential location & job location(activity locations-housing proximity);
Desire to live in low density environment and externalities of travel;
Lack of alternatives to the private automobile and/or private motorcycle;
What could happen if we are able to influence
Residents and tourist in green option in a sustainable/green)community strategy vision?

60. Innovation (1/2) Merge ideas and methodologies from various sciences;
Utilize state-of-the-art collection techniques and measurement tools:
Behavioral data:
on-line questionnaires, GPS devices, Headsets Emotiv
Environmental data:
direct point or line measurements of air pollutants, satellite observations.

61. Innovation (2/2) Advanced model development:
travel behavior and activity based modeling
microsimulation modeling
transportation network simulation
air quality modeling and spatial distribution of pollution
Link tourism to transport;
Financial evaluation of green policies; and
Develop a policy analysis tools for an island environment.

62. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

63. Behavioral Framework Developed based:
on the in-depth literature review and analysis; and
on a priori assumptions.

64. Behavioral Framework Development of the behavioral framework based:
on the in-depth literature review and analysis conducted in WP2; and
on a priori assumptions