2. Thinking and Language

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1Zay9SOYxA http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x42ghi_nell-2691011_blog

4. Cognition refers to the mental activities associated with:  Thinking  Knowing  Remembering and  Communicating https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-v-IMSKOtoE

6. Making Inferences  To help us figure out the episode, the context and stimulus of a situation we do have tools: Schema: General frameworks that provide expectations about topics, events, objects, people and situations.  Assimilation vs. Accommodation Assimilation vs. Accommodation Assimilation: The process by which people translate incoming information into a form they can understand Accommodation: The process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences Script: Schemas about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings.

7. Concepts To think about the countless events, objects, and people in our world, we organize them into mental groupings called concepts. ΨConcept = a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. ΨMental categories used to organize events and objects, are often arranged in hierarchical order from general to more specific—for example, Organism, animal, vertebrate, quadruped, dog, collie.

9. To simplify things further, we organize concepts into hierarchies.

10.  Although we form some concepts by definition—for example, a triangle has three sides—more often we form a concept by developing a prototype, a mental image or best example of a particular category.  The Best example

12.  Problem Solving: 4 methods  Trial and Error  Algorithm  Heuristics  Insight

13. Clarifying Problem Solving Examples To find a specific item in a supermarket Trial and error Algorithms Heuristics Wander around a supermarket randomly to find it. Create a methodical path to make sure you check every single aisle. Check only related aisles. Where’s the apple juice? Do I look on every shelf in the store, or do I search where there is similar stuff?

15. Trial and Error vs. Algorithms Trial and error--randomly trying different combinations in no particular order An algorithm (below)--carefully checking every single combination beginning with the letter “C” before moving on to a different starting letter. To solve a word jumble, you can use: 1. C L O O Y S P H Y G 2. C O L O Y S P H Y G 3. C O O L Y S P H Y G…

16.  For other problems we may follow a methodical rule or step-by-step procedure called an algorithm  OR  Heuristics which we discus momentarily.

17. What is thought?  There are basically two types of thought… 1. Concepts (schemas)…usuall y based on prototypes. 2. Images Our concept of men may include all of the following guys…. But they are based on our prototype (ideal) male…..

18. Algorithms  A rule that guarantees the right solution to a problem.  Usually by using a formula.  They work but are sometimes impractical. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k 0xgjUhEG3U

19. Friendship Algorithm Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0xgjUhEG3U http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0xgjUhEG3U

20. Thinking Unscramble S P L O Y O C H Y G  Algorithm all 907,208 combinations  Heuristic throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?

21. Heuristics  A rule of thumb that generally, but not always, can be used to make a judgment to solve a problem.  It is fast, but is…  Prone to errors  Two major types of heuristics….

22. Representativeness Heuristic  Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind.  Like thinking everyone from Rye is preppy, or someone with glasses is nerdy, or a blonde is not smart. If I tell you that Sonia Dara is a Sports Illustrated swimsuit model, you would make certain quick judgments (heuristics) about her…like about her interests or intelligence. She is an economics major at Harvard University. Who went to Harvard? This Guy is, but did not go to Harvard (but he looks like he did).

23. To solve a word jumble, you can try a heuristic. However, it would help to use shortcuts/heuristics to reduce the options we need to try, such as: 1. putting a “Y” at the end. 2. thinking about where the other “Y” could go. 3. trying the “H” preceded by “C” and “S” and “P” before trying other combinations. 4. speculating that with so few vowels, the “O”s will probably not be together. 1. C L O O Y S P H Y G S P L O Y O C H G Y P S L O Y O C H G Y P S Y C H O L O G Y The problem with using trial and error to solve a word jumble is that there are 782,200 (10!/(2!*2!)) different ways to combine those letters. At least with the algorithm method, you are sure to get through them all without counting any of them twice.

24. Algorithms: Not Just Thoroughness A father and a son are currently 40 and 10; when will the son be half the father’s age? It might be tempting to use trial and error, but algebra gives us an algorithm, a single, certain, systematic path to the answer: x = ½ (x + 30) 2x = x + 30 x = 30 Answer: when the son is 30, the father will be is 60.

25. Availability Heuristic  Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind.  Vivid examples in the news often cause an availability heuristic. Which place would you be more scared of getting mugged or even murdered? The Bronx, NY Gary, Indiana The crime rate of Gary, Indiana is MUCH higher than the Bronx. But when you think of crime, which town comes to mind? I realize the Bronx picture is misleading.

26. Confirmation Bias  Confirmation bias refers to our tendency to search for information which confirms our current theory, disregarding contradictory evidence.  Natural tendency: “If I’m right, then fact “C” will confirm my theory. I must look for fact “C.”  Scientific practice: “If I’m right, then fact “D” will disprove or at least disconfirm my theory. I must search for fact “D.” Studying Confirmation Bias: Peter Wason’s Selection Test 1.He gave the sequence of numbers “2, 4, 6.” 2.He asked students to guess his rule, and ask him whether other certain numbers fit the rule.  The problem was not the students’ theory, but their strategy. If you think the rule is “even numbers,” what numbers would you need to ask him about to TEST rather that CONFIRM your theory?

27. Heuristics can lead to Overconfidence…  Our confidence is not a good indicator of how right we are.  Belief Perseverance- maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong.  Belief Bias- People will tend to accept any and all conclusions that fit in with their systems of belief, without challenge or any deep consideration of what they are actually agreeing with.

28. Hurdles to problem solving

29. Mental set  a.k.a. rigidity  The tendency to fall into established thought patterns.  Some examples are….

30. Functional Fixedness  The inability to see a new use for an object. Think of as many uses as you can for a ……

31. Fixation Problem: how can you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? When people struggle with this, what fixation is going on? Hint: what assumption might be fixed in their minds? Our mental set, perhaps from our past experiences with matchsticks, assumes we are arranging them in two dimensions.

32. Confirmation Bias  We look for evidence to confirm our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them.  For example, if one believes that all Italians are in shape and go tanning, then they turn on MTV. Look…I knew it was true!!! But is it really?

33. Framing  90% of the population will be saved with this medication…..or  10% of the population will die despite this medication.  You should not drink more than two drinks per day….or  You should not drink more than 730 drinks a year. Look at the following question and think about how the question is worded may effect the way it is answered.  How can businesses become more socially responsible?  The way a problem is presented can drastically effect the way we view it.

34. CREATIVITY  Almost impossible to define.  Little correlation between creativity and intelligence.  Convergent Thinking versus Divergent Thinking

35. Language  Language our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning  Phoneme in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit  Morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)  Grammar a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others

36. Language  Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language Also, the study of meaning  Syntax the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

37.  Study phonemes and morphemes in your text  Semantics and syntax too  Sorry!!!

38. Language Development is an Amazing Process  We acquire the use of 10 new words per day (on average) between ages 2 and 18.  Children learn the basic grammar of language before they can add 2 + 2.  Most kids can recall words and meanings, and assemble words into sentences, while simultaneously following social rules for speaking and listening. abbreviate absorbent accept access accessible accessory acoustics accumulate adjust aerial affects alien allotment allotted already altercation amass amendment amorous ancestor anecdote angular anonymous antidote antique antiseptic architect arrangement asphalt assignment asterisk attorneys audible aviator bachelor bankruptcy barbaric bask battery behavior benefited berserk besieged bicycle blanch brilliance budget bulletin business cachet callus cancellation canvas canvass capricious carburetor cashier catastrophe centripetal characteristic chaste irksome irresistible irrevocable issuing itemized jewelry judicious juror justifiable landslide legitimate leisure liaison library license lieutenant loophole lunar luncheon magnify malefactor malicious markup mattress mesmerize meteor metric mischievous misgiving modern modicum mystery negligence neon neutral newsstand nineteenth nonentity noticeable notoriety nuisance numerator nylon obesity oblique obstinate obsolete officious opposite optimism oregano overrate pageant parliament passable paucity penalty perseverance personality picnicking plaintiff cinnamon classic collateral colleague college comedy commerce commercial committee communicate commuter compel compensation competent consider contiguous corporal council counsel country creator critique customary customer daybreak deceive defendant deficient deficit depreciation desirable desolate detain devour diagnosis diffidence diminish disappeared disapproval disbursement discernible discrepancy disinterested disoblige dissociate distress diurnal divine domestic domesticate dominance easier ecstasy effect eject eligible eliminate erroneous especially exceptional excessive existence exotic expression extremity extricate facsimile familiar fantastic faulty federal feud flexible flout fluorescent folklore forcible fortunately franchise frivolous frostbitten further galaxy galling genuine gesture geology gigantic gnawing gorgeous grotesque gymnasium handicapped handling handsome haphazard harness hazardous headquarters homogenize horrific humidor idiosyncrasy impatience impinge incandescent inconsolable indelible inept influence innocence innumerable insistent insoluble integrity intensify poignant potential preceding precipice preoccupy prospectus quest questionnaire quixotic radioactive rapacious rayon raze recently reconcile relevant relief repulse revive rhyme rhythm roommate roster sanctuary sandwich scarcely schedule schism scholar schooner sedition semester seminary session shrine sieve signal sincerely soccer solitary subvert statutory terrific thieves tragedy transient transmutation turpitude tyranny unacceptable unique unmoved usher utopia vengeance vocal voucher withhold wrestle writtenative invariable How do we learn language? Language Development

39. Age (months)Talent/Behavior/Stage 0-4 months In fantis (“not speaking”) Receptive language: associating sounds with facial movements, and recognizing when sounds are broken into words 4 monthsProductive language: babbling in multilingual sounds and gestures 10 monthsBabbling sounds more like the parents’/household’s language 12 monthsOne-word stage: understanding and beginning to say many nouns 18-24 months Two-word, “telegraphic”/tweet speech: adding verbs, and making sentences but missing words (“See bird! Ree book? Go park!”) 24+ months, 2+ years Speaking full sentences and understanding complex sentences How do we learn language? Language Talents and Stages

40. Language Summary of Language Development Month (approximate) Stage 4 10 12 24 24+ Babbles many speech sounds. Babbling reveals households language. One-word stage. Two-world, telegraphic speech. Language develops rapidly into Complete sentences.

41. Critical Periods  According to one study with immigrants, beginning a language later made it harder to learn the pronunciation and the grammar of the second language.  It is important to begin appropriate language exposure/education early so that language centers of the brain continue to develop.  Language might never develop if not begun by age seven.

42. Sign language has the syntax, grammar, and complex meaning of any spoken language. Deaf and Blind Children Deaf and blind children can use complex adapted languages by using other senses that are heightened. “Blindness cuts people off from things; deafness cuts people off from people.”—Helen Keller What happens if a deaf infant’s parents don’t use sign language? Hint: critical period

43. Brain Damage and Language Examples of aphasia: having the ability to speak but not read, to produce words in song but not in conversation, and to speak but not repeat; or producing words in jumbled order Aphasia: an impairment in the ability to produce or understand language, usually caused by damage to the brain Broca’s area, in the left temporal lobe Wernicke’s area, left temporal lobe Damage to Broca’s area leads to difficulty in putting words together in sentences or even speaking single words, although a person can sing a song. Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to difficulty comprehending speech and producing coherent speech (not easily monitoring one’s own speech to make sure it makes sense).

44. Language and the Brain How to read a word, steps 1 to 5 Remember: language functions are divided in the brain.

45. Can other species communicate with us through language?  Washoe the chimpanzee learned to use 245 signs to express what she wanted or noticed.  Fellow chimpanzees learned signs from each other without training and without rewards.  A deaf N.Y. Times reporter visited Washoe and said, “I realized I was conversing with a member of another species in my native tongue.” Do Other Species Use Language?  Receptive language for individual human words seems to exist for a few species; dogs can follow hundreds of commands.  Productive language: many animals have “words”: sounds, gestures, dances (bees) to communicate information, including different “words” for different objects, states, and places

46. Is the chimp signing really language?  Washoe seemed to combine words in new ways to convey meaning; Washoe used the phrase “apple which is orange” for an orange (fruit).  Chimps do not pick up words as easily as human children.  Chimp word production lacks syntax, but a bonobo correctly understood “make the dog bite the snake.” Signing “baby”

47.  For example, Benjamin Whorf (1897-1941) proposed that because the Hopi do not have past tense forms for verbs, it is hard for them to think about the past.  Can you think about something that you do not have a name for? If so, does that disprove linguistic determinism? Linguistic determinism: the idea that our specific language determines how we think Language Influencing Thought

48. Language’s Influence on Thought Does language shape emotions or reflect them?  Speaking in Japanese provides many extra words for interpersonal emotions such as sympathy and empathy, which Americans might have trouble differentiating.  Speaking English gives us many words for self-focused emotions, such as sadness. Do language differences shape personality differences?  Bilingual people appear to have different personality profiles when describing themselves in different languages.  “Learn a new language and get a new soul.”--Czech proverb. Color Perception  We use our native language to classify and to remember colors. Different languages may vary in where they put the separation between “blue” and “green,” or they may not have separate words for these colors.  Which squares are green? teal? blue?

49. Languages Improve Thinking The Bilingual Advantage  People who are bilingual have numerous brain connections and neural networks.  They also have a hidden talent, the ability to suppress one language while learning another.  This ability tends to go along with other forms of executive control, such as resisting distraction and inhibiting impulses.

50. 55 minute movie- only if we are not behind  Wild Child Genie  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmd ycJQi4QA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmd ycJQi4QA

51. Innateness-Theory of Language  According to the innateness-theory of language, children acquire language not only by imitating but also by following preprogrammed steps to acquire language. Noam Chomsky-Language Acquisition Device-LAD: a mental structure that facilitates the learning of language because it is preprogrammed with fundamental language rules. Globally, all children follow the same pattern of language acquisition. LAD is flexible-any language is possible

52. Language  Linguistic Relativity Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think