1. Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka

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3. Based upon what we read in the textbook, what is the message of this political cartoon? Explain.

4. Demographics as Cause of Conflict

5. 5 Demographics Ethnic Groups: o Sinhalese 73.8%, o Sri Lankan Moors 7.2%, o Indian Tamil 4.6%, o Sri Lankan Tamil 3.9% (2001 census) Religious Groups: o Buddhist 69.1%, o Muslim 7.6%, o Hindu 7.1%, o Christian 6.2%,(2001 census) Languages: o Sinhala (official and national language) 74%, o Tamil (national language) 18%, o Other 8%

6. The Two Sides Ethnicities in Sri Lanka Sinhalese are 74% of pop. Buddhists Small Christian minority within Came from N. India Tamils are 18% of pop. Hindus Small Christian minority within Came from S. India

7. Who are the Sinhalese?

8. Sinhalese ~THE ORIGINAL SETTLERS~ -The original settler and the most powerful and dominating of settlers were the Sinhalese. -Sinhalese occupied most of Sri Lanka, and Sinhalese kingships and royal families governed various regions of the island. -The Sinhalese people, though they were the majority, lived peacefully with the non-Aryan populations of the island.

9. Sinhalese Viewpoint  Sinhalese narrative claims they were first ‘civilised’ settlers of Sri Lanka, from 5 th /6 th C. BC.  Sinhalese history of SL based on Buddhist chronicle the Mahāvamsa and its myth of Prince Vijaya; Buddha entrusted the island to the Sinhalese people.  Sinhala nationalism claims Tamils in north and east are descendants of Tamil-speaking Hindu ‘invaders’.  Claims SL Tamils never had autonomous political units previously and accepted Sinhalese rule.

10. Sinhalese Religious Nationalism Buddhism and its ability to bring out the revival of the Sinhala as a race was an ideal symbolic tool for politicians since 1931, used to address a Sri Lankan society riddled with caste, class, regional matrix (1990: 20). This is the key reason why even now the arguments of Sinhala majority still center on the necessity to protect Buddhism and the Sinhala people.

11. Pair-Share Activity Come up with a propaganda slogan for the Sinhalese that captures their viewpoint on the conflict. Do this on the lines next to the last slide for the Sinhalese section.

12. Who are the Tamil?

13. Tamils ~ARRIVAL OF THE TAMILS~ -Originated from the southern part of India. -Various tribes from southern India invaded and settled in northern parts of the island, spreading down the northeast and northwest coasts. -Due to the differences in religion and language and tensions over land rights, the Tamil Kingdom of Jaffna was often at war with Sinhalese kings

14. Tamil Viewpoint  Tamil narrative (less extreme) claims Tamils have lived in Sri Lanka for at least 1,000 years and have had autonomous political units.  Tamil narrative (more extreme) claims Tamils settled first and Sinhalese were originally Tamils who later converted to Buddhism and adopted the Sinhala language.

15. Pair-Share Activity Come up with a propaganda slogan for the Tamil that captures their viewpoint on the conflict. Do this on the lines next to the last slide for the Tamil section.

16. Sinhalese have dominated gov’t and commerce since 1948 Tamils feel they are discriminated against How do you split up this one? Possibly 90,000- 110,000 people dead (20,000-40,000 in final months); 500,000+ have left Sri Lanka; up to 1,000,000 displaced at various points with many thousands still living in IDP camps.

17. Colonial History: Cause of Conflict

18. Colonial History Jaffna Peninsula ( Yapa Patuna) captured by the Portuguese by defeating Sinhalese General (Athapattu Dissava) in 1591 The Dutch captured all Portuguese territories ( Green) by 1658. The Dutch brought “Malabar Tamils” to grow tobacco in the North (Jaffna) http://dh- web.org/place.names/posts/conflict.ppt

19. British Colonial Rule: Cause of Conflict The British drove out the Dutch, and took over the Kandyan kingdom by a treaty signed in 1815. Kandyan peasants ousted for Land The 1910 ruling council had 2 Europeans, one Burgher and one Tamil (Sir Ponnambalam Ramanathan) of the “highest caste” for all Ceylonese. Divide and rule policy of promoting the minority against the majority. http://dh- web.org/place.names/posts/conflict.ppt

20. British Rule: Cause of Conflict  European ideas of ‘race’ that British rule brought were significant in development of nationalism.  British policy influenced by new racial theories, incl. notion of ‘Aryanism’ (linguistic affinity = common ‘blood’).  Buddhist revivalist movement from late 18 th /early 19 th century: resistance to old élite and to the British. Began as anti-imperialist but contributed to construction of Sinhala- Buddhist nationalist identity.  Circa 1890 on working-class called for economic improvements and union rights; emerging bourgeoisie demanded political reforms, equal opportunities and democratic rights from circa 1900.

21. Cause of Conflict--- Tamil Opposition to Universal Voting Rights Donoughmore commission (1929 CE) proposes one vote per adult (universal suffrage). Tamil leaders TOTALLY OPPOSED UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE, and Sinhala Majority rights. They also asked for the caste system in the constitution. G G Ponnambalam demands 50 seats for Sinhala 75% and 50 seats for the 15% Tamils & minorities. 50:50 “equal rights”. http://dh-web.org/place.names/posts/conflict.ppt

22. 1931 Constitution and Election: Cause of Conflict Lead-up to independence 1)1931 Constitution replaced communal representation with territorial electorates; with universal suffrage this led to Sinhalese majority rule. 2)First general election 1931 (self-government) – Sinhalese leadership unwilling to share power with minority ethnic groups. 3)New administrative division of the island according to language.

23. Independence 4 February 1948: Independence as the Dominion of Ceylon. It was regarded as a model colony – with an English-educated elite, universal suffrage, and an elected assembly – deserving of self-government. After independence, power was still in the hands of the feudal elite, the landed aristocracy. 23

24. Colonial Control to Independence Conflict had been suppressed by Europeans, who controlled Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) until 1948 (2,000 year old conflict, held off for 300 years of colonial rule) Sinhalese held most of the gov’t, military and economic power after independence

25. When did the conflict really start? ‘For long periods of time groups which would now be characterized in terms of the Sinhala-Tamil divide lived more or less at peace with one another. There were dynastic wars; but Sinhala-Tamil communal violence dates from after Independence. This is not to say that there were no differences between groups of people living in the island: the point is simply that differences of language, custom and religion were made into something new by the devices of a modern state.’ (Nissan and Stirrat, 1990) Pair Share Activity: What is the main point or argument of this primary source? Based upon what we have learned thus far, do you agree with this position? Why or why not? Explain with historical evidence. Do this on the lines next to this slide.

26. Independence: Cause of Conflict

27. 27 Independence: Cause of Ethnic Conflict D. S. Senanayake, ‘the father of the nation’, disenfranchised the ‘plantation Tamils’, thereby establishing a Sinhalese electoral majority in the upcountry areas. Followed by colonisation schemes that settled Sinhalese peasants in the predominantly Tamil- speaking north-east – thereby changing the ethnic demography of the area.

28. Cause of Conflict: Sinhala State Nationalism 1)Citizenship Act 1948 and Indian and Pakistani Residents (Citizenship) Act 1949. 2)Language policies. 3)Educational policy known as ‘standardisation’ from 1970. 4)Official entrenchment of Buddhism and growth of political Buddhism.

29. Cause of Conflict 5)Economic alienation and exclusion from traditional employment for Tamils. 6)Post-independence ‘ethnic outbidding’ very significant. 7)‘Colonisation schemes’ from 1950s. 8)1979 Prevention of Terrorism Act. 9)Series of violent inter-communal (anti-Tamil) riots, beginning 1956 and culminating in 1983.

30. 1948/1949 Anti-Tamil Legislation Examples Ceylon Citizenship Act: denied citizenship to Tamils of Indian origin, which was about 800,000 indentured laborers brought over by the British to work the plantations Ceylon Amendment Act: took away voting rights from free Tamils, so very few could vote for or serve in the new Parliament

31. Pair-Share Activity Based upon all the changes made since independence was granted, which change do you think was the greatest cause of the ethnic conflict and why? Do this next to the two previous slides on the lines.

32. 32 Causes of Ethnic Conflict 1956: Oxford-educated SWRD Bandaranaike came to power on the platform of making Sinhala the official language and restoring Buddhism to its ‘rightful place’. Language policy: all government servants would know Sinhala. Became the medium of instructions in schools. Created structural disadvantages for the Tamils, as they were over-represented in administrative services and professions. He was shot by a monk, as he became less “nationalistic”. In 1972, new constitution instituted: the country became republic and named Sri Lanka. Buddhism became the national religion. Mandated positive affirmative action for Sinhalese.

33. 1956 Sinhala Only Official Languages Act Made Sinhalese the national language and reserved all the best jobs for the Sinhalese It was supposed to address the imbalance of power between the majority of Sinhalese speaking people and English speaking people. But it was really aimed at the Tamil. The law limited education and work opportunities for the Tamil youth. This lead to a four day riot that left 100 Tamils dead. It also lead to the Tamil Hindu minority to push for a federal system of government where they had greater independence in the mainly Tamil areas in the north and east.

34. How does this cartoon relate to the Language Policy passed? Explain.

35. 1956/1957: BC Pact Brokered by the Sinhala Prime Minister Bandaranike and the Tamil leader Chelvanayakam Was to protect Tamil interests Sinhalese nationalists did not like the deal and put pressure on it and broke it Led to Prime Minister Bandaranike being assassinated by a Buddhist monk (Remind you of what happened to the Egyptian President Sadat over Camp David Peace Accords, Israeli Prime Minister Rabin over Oslo Peace Accords, and Gandhi over Partition of India and Pakistan…hmmm!)

36. Who are the Tamil Tigers?

37. Cause of Conflict Tamil nationalism 1.Federal Party from 1950s: stood for federal constitution with Northern and Eastern Provinces as states of a federal union. 2.Non-violent protest campaigns met with repression; last one in 1964. 3.Tamil push for secession from early 1970s; TULF formally demanded independent state in 1976.

39. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam The LTTE The LTTE have been fighting for an independent homeland for nearly 3 million Tamils in northern and eastern Sri Lanka The basis of ethnic conflict is exacerbated by struggles between Hindus and Muslims

41. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam The origins of LTTE At the end of WWII, the Tamil minority in Sri Lanka was concerned about maintaining its ethnic identity Claiming that the Tamils dominated the Sri Lankan government, the Sinhalese majority forced the government to adopt a “Sinhalese-only” policy A Tamil assassin killed the Sinhalese leader in 1959, setting the stage for further violence Buoyed by religious difference and ethnic support, Tamil separatists could begin a guerrilla campaign by waging a terrorist campaign In 1975, Velupillai Pirabhakaran, a young Tamil militant, took advantage of the situation and formed the LTTE

42. Rise of LTTE militancy Armed Tamil militancy resulted from deliberate manipulative polarization of the two communities. Tamil opposition to universal suffrage, & Sinhala majority politics led Tamil leaders to seek separation. This was spear-headed by the privileged Tamils, sacrificing the lower-castes and rural Tamils. Separatist agitation led to violence and enormous suffering to Tamils. Even today the rich Tamils of the Diaspora push for Eelam via the TGTE. http://dh-web.org/place.names/posts/conflict.ppt

43. 43 LTTE Tamil Tigers: millitant armed force. Developed their navy and airforce. Prabhakaran: no sacrifice was too great for the objective of “Eelam” LTTE attacked all perceived enemies, internal/external. '91: Indian PM Gandhi, '93 Sri Lanka President Premadasa. Branded as a terrorist group by US, Canada, India and others (not that this really matters!).

44. Tamil Separatism: The “Tamil Tigers”

45. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Tactics of the LTTE In 1988 and 1992, the LTTE sought to control geographic areas, and they moved using standard guerrilla tactics, forming uniformed units In weaker times, they relied on bank robberies, bombings, and murder In the weakest times, they have also employed suicide bombers

46. End justifies the means? TULF politicians as well as the LTTE boasted that they “welcome state violence and will give it back in kind”, ruthlessly. LTTE perfected suicide bombing, child soldiers, militarizing the feminine body, financial extortion and physical elimination of all opposition. The rich Tamil Diaspora funded arms purchases and world-wide propaganda. Diplomats, academics and NGOs were funded to “join the cause". http://dh-web.org/place.names/posts/conflict.ppt

48. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Retreat of the LTTE By 1987, the LTTE retreated to the jungle, and practiced terrorism from jungle hideaways In 1990, the LTTE expanded its operations by converting a fishing fleet into a makeshift navy From 1994 to 1995, the Tamil Tigers waged another bombing and assassination campaign

49. Rise of the LTTE - Eliminating Dissent--- Political Assassinations The “boys” nurtured by the TULF hijacked Tamil politics and become the “sole representative of Tamils” by murdering all Tamil opponents (& others) Duraiappah -Mayor(1975), Canagaratnam-MP(1979), Thiyagarajah-MP(1981), Dharmalingam-MP(1985), Alalasundaram-MP(1985), Yogesvaran-MP(1989), Amirthalaingam-MP(1989), Thambimuttu-MP (1990), Kirubaran -1990 Yogasangari-(1990), Arunasalam-MP (1997), Maharoof-MP (1997) Etc..Etc....http://dh- web.org/place.names/posts/conflict.ppt Shanmuganathan-1998, Thiruchelvam- 1999, Aputharaj- 1999, Soundaranayagam-2000, Chandra nehru – 2005, Kadirgamar, 2005 Pararajasingham-2005, Raviraj - 2006, Sivamaharaja – 2006, K.Loganathan-2006, Mahesvarahn, 2008, Sivanesan, 2008, Fernandopulle, 2008 Rajiv Gandhi – 1991 R. Premadasa -1993

50. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam The LTTE’s unique position The LTTE is in a unique position because it has such a large guerrilla base The guerrillas are perfectly capable of fighting a protracted war against security forces, and if defeated, the LTTE can revert to terrorism

51. Pair Share Activity Compare and contrast the Tamil Tigers to other guerrilla warfare or terrorist groups we have studied this year in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia. Do this on the lines next to the last Tamil Tiger Slide just covered.

52. 52 Impact on Tamil Population and Tamil Nationalism Mass migration of Tamils. Initially middle class professionals and later poorer segments of the community. 800,000 Tamils displaced since the beginning of the conflict. * Many wealthy Tamils fled to the west and their contributions, not always voluntary, played a large part in funding the Tigers. * Tamil Eelam, unfortunately, was like any other nationalism, Tamil nationalism sought to erase diversity, masking social inequality, diversity and dissent.

53. Tamil villagers identify the bodies of their loved ones killed during clashes between government forces and Tamil Tigers

54. What is the message of this political cartoon about the actions and impact of those actions of the Tamil Tigers on the Tamil population? Explain with evidence from your notes.

55. 55 Indian Tamils lived in highland districts Sri Lankan Tamils located mainly in Jaffna & Batticaloa Policy in 1950 to resettle poor Sinhalese peasants from densely populated central and southwestern parts to the Tamil-majority areas Cause of Conflict: Resettling of Sinhalese and Tamils

56. 56 Cause of Conflict: Population Resettlement of Tamils Consequence: Tamils who felt that the Sinhalese were ‘intruders in their territories’- Sinhalese peasants Buddhist monks Soldiers who were mainly Sinhalese Whole villages were driven out by the Sri Lankan army to be occupied by Sinhalese settlers The new settlers were also provided protection by the army

57. 57 Cause of Conflict: Impact Unhappiness amongst Tamils felt marginalized and rejected by the large-scale government resettlement schemes into these traditional areas of Tamils

58. Start of Conflict and Major Events

59. 59 University Admission Before 1970 Based on merit Medium of instruction in exams: English Sinhalese dissatisfied that there were almost as many Tamils as Sinhalese in the university medical and engineering courses Did not reflect population proportion in the country

60. University Admission After 1970, the government introduced new university admission criteria. Measures taken to lessen Tamil students in university – what are these measures? Tamils had to score higher marks than the Sinhalese students to enter the same courses in university. A fixed no. of places reserved for Sinhalese Consequence: significant fall in percentage of Tamil students as opposed to rise of Sinhalese students 60

61. 1972: Ceylon Renamed Republic of Sri Lanka New constitution made Buddhism the primary religion Tamil places at university were cut back Civil unrest broke out State of Emergency declared in Tamil areas Sinhalese security forces passed many discriminatory laws Large number of militant Tamil groups emerged

62. Rise of Tamil Militancy 1970– 1976 Formation of radical Tamil political organizations. 1972 LTTE formed by Velupillai Prabhakaran Political/organized Violence against Tamils (1977, 1978, 1979) 1980 – 1983 Tamil radical organizations became overtly militant and random confrontations 1983 (July) Ambush of Sri Lankan Soldiers and 1983 ethnic riots.

63. 1983: Black July Tamil Tigers ambushed an army convoy killing 13 Sinhalese Set off anti-Tamil violence in Colombo and other areas Mobs of Sinhalese viciously killed thousands of Tamils and destroyed Tamil property in pogrom-like attacks (Remember the Stages of Genocide!) The army and government did nothing to stop it. More than 2, 500 Tamils were killed. Left 500,000 Tamil seeking refuge in India and elsewhere

64. 1983 Riots in Sri Lanka

65. Aftermath of the 1983 Riots in Sri Lanka

66. Economic - Unemployment The Sri Lankan riots of 1983 lead to massive unemployment. Both Tamils and Sinhalese lost their jobs. Many of the jobless Sinhalese also took part in vandalizing, looting and burning their places of work. With unemployment and the subsequent destruction of places of work would result in suffering and economic hardship for Sri Lanka and its citizens.

67. Economic – Loss of Investment The Sri Lankan conflict has scared off potential investors to Sri Lanka who are afraid that the instability in the country would cause them to lose their investments. With a loss of investment, Sri Lanka cannot grow its economy, re-build damaged infrastructure or create jobs

68. Wrecked businesses following the 1983 Riots in Sri Lanka (also known as Black July)

69. Economic – Fall in the Number of Tourists  The Sri Lankan conflict has scared off many tourists who do not dare to travel to Sri Lanka.  As tourism is one of Sri Lanka’s major income earners, there has been a fall in tourism earnings and a loss of tourism-related jobs.  With a loss of foreign investment and a drop in tourist earnings, Sri Lanka cannot get the funds needed to re-build infrastructure or to develop attractive amenities and facilities causing the country to be in a state of continuous financial hardship.

70. How does this political cartoon relate to the 1983 Black July? Explain.

71. Eelam War I (1983 – 1987) 1983 Ambush and killing of 13 soldiers 1984, 1985 civilian massacres Purging of dissent 1986 LTTE crack down on TELO and PLOTE First suicide attack July 1987 Operation Liberation ( May – June 1987) and Indian Intervention

72. What is the message of this political cartoon? How do you know? Based upon the events of the ethnic conflict thus far, do you agree with the message or not? Explain with historical evidence.

73. Social – Sri Lankan Tamils Driven Out of Homeland  Following the 1983 riots, thousands of Tamils fled to India  In the early 1990s, the Sri Lankan Army set up High Security Zones (HSZ) where access is controlled and occupied large parts of Tamil-dominated areas to deal with the Tamil Tigers.  Due to this conflict, many Tamils have fled from their homes and live in overcrowded refugee camps.

74. Tamils fleeing Sri Lanka by ship following the 1983 Riots

75. Social – Sri Lankan Tamils Driven Out of Homeland Many families have also been broken up or separated during the fighting and many Tamils have suffered during the 20 years or so of endless conflict, robbing them of a bright future in their country. Most Tamils have lost their homes as a result of the conflict and have to suffer in overcrowded, unhygienic conditions in refugee camps.

76. Tamils fleeing from their homes in Jaffna, the northern part of Sri Lanka

77. 1987 Indo Lanka Accord Indian intervention (political and military) Establishment of provincial councils Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Patrol North and East Premadasa Factor (1989) and the withdrawal of the IPKF

78. Eelam War II (1990 – 1994) Massacre of unarmed policemen Eviction of Muslims from the North Massacre of Muslim villagers in 1991 Rajiv Gandhi assassination (May 1991) Killing of President Premadasa 1993

79. Eelam War III (1995 – 2001) April 1995 naval battle, gunboats sunk Air force and civilian airline downed Attack on Mullativu Garrison ‘unceasing waves’ July 1996 Civilian massacres 1995, 1999 Assault of Elephant Pass Garrison 2000

80. Mid 1990s to Early 2000s Overview The mid 1990s to the early 2000’s saw the LTTE performing the role of a state as they began regulating and controlling the resources and population of the land under their control. They viewed these methods as tools for effective governance. These included establishing a central information collection agency thus enabling them to implement a successful tax regime.

81. Eelam War IV LTTE split in 2004 Mavil Aru Incident July 26, 2006 March 2007 air raids LTTE attacks on eastern targets Government resumed full-scale offensive

82. 82 Current Situation 2009 January - Government troops capture the northern town of Kilinochchi, held for ten years by the Tamil Tigers. Huge atrocities by the state are reported. More than 10,000 people were killed between January and May. 2009 May – LTTE leader Prabhakaran is believed to have been killed. Rebels agree to lay down arms. Still thousands of Tamilians are in refugee camps. President Mahinda Rajapakse calls it an unparalleled victory. 2009 November – Rajapakse announced elections, two years earlier, to capitalize on his huge popularity post-war. 2010 January - Rajapake won.

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84. 84 Current Situation IDPs: 460,000, both Tamils and non-Tamils, displaced. More than 100,000 killed in the war. Sri Lanka's defence expenditure has gone up consistently since the end of the war and amounts to about 5% of GDP, nearly double that spent by India and Pakistan. The process of ‘winning the peace’ yet to begin. Tamil civilians’ plight continues. http://english.aljazeera.net/video/asia/2010/11/20101110100 21857352.html

85. What is the message of the political cartoon? How do you know? After what we have learned thus far, do you agree with the message? Explain why or why not with historical evidence.

86. For the rest of the conflict: The rest of your notes on the conflict up until 2015 will come from the BBC Sri Lanka Timeline Reading and the BBC Documentary from YouTube.