1. Learning Principles and Applications
Classical Conditioning

2. Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
Most learning is associative learning (learning that certain events occur together)

3. Associative Learning
We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.

4. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov ( )
One of the main types of associative learning is called classical conditioning.
Some of the earliest, most beneficial work in the field of classical conditioning was done by a Russian physiologist by the name of Ivan Pavlov.
Why is it called classical conditioning?
A Model T Ford is one of the first cars that Henry Ford produced. This makes it an item of first importance – a classic. Since Pavlov’s experiments were the first in the learning area, they are also considered classical. This is how we get the term classical conditioning.

5. Pavlov’s Discovery
Originally interested in understanding how the digestive system worked, Pavlov experimented on dogs by surgically separating their stomach from their esophagus (which carries food from the mouth to the stomach). In the course of his research, Pavlov noticed three main things:
Food put directly into the stomach did not generate enough gastric juices for digestion. Therefore, salivation at the time of eating is critical to proper digestion.
Even when no food was put directly into the dog’s mouth, the animal would still salivate at the sight of food.
Eventually, the sight of the experimenter who fed the animal (or the sound of a bell) would cause salivation even if the experimenter was not carrying food.

6. Classical Conditioning – What Is It?
People (and animals) acquire certain behaviors through classical conditioning
Pavlov’s digestive experiments on dogs began the study of classical conditioning – conditioning in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus.

7. Unconditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Response
Classical conditioning starts with a stimulus (anything that causes some kind of reaction). That reaction is called the response (a reaction to a stimulus).
For example, since meat made the dogs salivate, meat is the stimulus (S) for the response (R) of salivation.
Receives food (S) Salivates (R)
Because no special conditions are needed for meat to cause salivation, it is natural and automatic. In this case, we use the following terms:
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – a stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response
Example of UCS – meat (because it automatically elicits a response of salivation)
Unconditioned response (UCR) – the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
Example of UCR – salivation (because it is an automatic response to meat)
Therefore, a more accurate diagram than the one above is
Receives food (UCS) Salivates (UCR)

9. Neutral Stimulus
What is introduced next is the neutral stimulus (NS) – a stimulus that does not elicit any response by itself.
In the case of the dogs, the experimenter was the neutral stimulus. By himself, there is no reason a dog should salivate at the sight of the experimenter.
In order for the subject (the dog) to react to the neutral stimulus (the experimenter), specific conditions are necessary – the subject must associate the neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus. In this case, the dog must associate the experimenter with food.

10. Conditioned Stimulus =
When that association takes place over time, a conditioned stimulus (CS) has developed. In other words, a conditioned stimulus is an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a response.
The experimenter by himself used to be a neutral stimulus – he did not elicit any response of salivation from the dog.
However, once the dog began to associate the experimenter with food after the experimenter continued bringing it, the experimenter became a conditioned stimulus – he used to be neutral, but now he elicits a response of salivation.
So, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and can be added into the previous diagram, which would look like this:
Sight of experimenter (CS) Receives food (UCS) Salivates (UCR) =

11. Conditioned Response
Eventually, the subject will respond to the conditioned stimulus (experimenter) alone, without needing the unconditioned stimulus (food) to be present. This response that is now triggered by a CS alone is known as the conditioned response (CR) – the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
In other words, even when the experimenter no longer brings food with him, the dog will continue to salivate at the sight of the experimenter, without food even being present. The diagram can reflect this new development like this:
Sight of experimenter (CS) Salivates (CR)

12. Recap of Classical Conditioning Basics
Unconditioned stimuli lead to unconditioned responses.
When a neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS, associations develop.
This leads to the NS becoming a conditioned stimulus, which leads to a conditioned response.
UCS  UCR  NS  CS  CR
UCS (meat)  UCR (salivation to meat)  NS (experimenter)  CS (experimenter when associated with food)  CR (salivation to experimenter)
Think of “conditioned” as being “learned.”

13. Figure 6.2: The sequence of events in classical conditioning.
(a) Moving downward, this series of three panels outlines the sequence of events in classical conditioning, using Pavlov’s original demonstration as an example. (b) As we encounter other examples of classical conditioning throughout the book, we will see many diagrams like the one in this panel, which will provide snapshots of specific instances of classical conditioning.
Figure 6.2: The sequence of events in classical conditioning.
(a) Moving downward, this series of three panels outlines the sequence of events in classical conditioning, using Pavlov’s original demonstration as an example. (b) As we encounter other examples of classical conditioning throughout the book, we will see many diagrams like the one in this panel, which will provide snapshots of specific instances of classical conditioning.
Fig. 6-2, p. 218

14. Figure 7.3 Pavlov’s classic experiment Myers: Psychology, Ninth Edition Copyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

15. Classical Conditioning – Pavlov’s Study
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Right-click on animation for playback controls.
Instructor’s Notes
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

16. Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus
An experimental arrangement similar to the one depicted here (taken from Yerkes & Morgulis, 1909) has typically been used in demonstrations of classical conditioning, although Pavlov’s original setup (see inset) was quite a bit simpler. The dog is restrained in a harness. A tone is used as the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the presentation of meat powder is used as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The tube inserted into the dog’s salivary gland allows precise measurement of its salivation response. The pen and rotating drum of paper on the left are used to maintain a continuous record of salivary flow. (Inset) The less elaborate setup that Pavlov originally used to collect saliva on each trial is shown here (Goodwin, 1991).
Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus

17. Surrounded by his research staff, the great Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (center, white beard) demonstrates his famous classical conditioning experiment with dogs.
Surrounded by his research staff, the great Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (center, white beard) demonstrates his famous classical conditioning experiment with dogs.

18. Video Clips This is on your Video Tool Kit
From Discovering Psychology (click on VoD icon next to program #8, “Learning”)

19. Just for Fun…
The power of the bike bell! (not in English, but you’ll get the point!)
The Office – Jim Trains Dwight
Watch at home:
Eddie Izzard – Pavlov’s Cats
Watch at home:
The Classical Conditioning Song:

20. Try it on your friends!
Classical Conditioning at BGSU (Watch at home:

21. Another Example of Classical Conditioning
Pizza makes a person hungry. (UCS)
Pizza makes a person hungry. (UCR)
A doorbell doesn’t usually make you hungry. (NS)
The doorbell rings when the pizza delivery person arrives. (NS paired with the UCS)
The association is formed. (Doorbell=pizza)
The doorbell rings, and you get hungry. (NS now elicits the same reaction as the UCS)
The doorbell makes you hungry. (CS elicits a CR)

22. John B. Watson: The Next Step in Classical Conditioning
John B. Watson was one of the first American promoters of the behaviorist perspective in psychology.
He suggested that at the human level, “deep emotions” (like other behaviors) are just the result of association and learning (conditioning). In other words, he believed he could get a human to spread (or generalize) the emotion of fear from one object to another.
Much of Watson’s research, like Pavlov’s, would now be considered highly unethical; however, it did provide us with some unique insights into conditioning and human behavior…
A woman who worked at the same clinic as Watson would bring her child with her while she was working. Unknown to the mother, Watson started a series of conditioning experiments with the child. This 11-month-old, now a research legend, is known as:
“Little Albert”

23. The “Little Albert” Experiment
Humans are, naturally, startled by loud noises. We don’t have to learn to be startled or afraid, it just happens naturally. In other words, a sudden loud noise is an unconditioned stimulus for the unconditioned response of fear. (This is especially true of young children.)
In order to study conditioned, or learned, behaviors, Watson put a white laboratory rat in the room with Albert. Albert loved the animal and would often play with it. While Albert played, Watson would sneak up behind him and bang a steel bar with a hammer, creating a horrible, startling noise. Albert, of course, would be terrified and begin to cry. Each time Albert reached for the rat, Watson repeated the loud noise. Eventually, Little Albert became terrified of the rat.

24. Poor Little Albert…
Can you identify the components of Little Albert’s conditioning?
UCS?
UCR?
NS?
CS?
CR?
Another interesting development in Watson’s research was the discovery that not only did Little Albert fear white rats; he also feared white rabbits and showed negative responses to fur coats and Santa Claus masks. Further research by Pavlov explains this phenomenon (see stimulus generalization on future slide)
Loud noise
Fear/crying
Rat
clip

25. What happened to Little Albert?
Little Albert became one of the biggest mysteries in the field of psychology. Watson never revealed Albert’s true identity in his notes, and no one ever knew what came of him after his mother removed him from the experiment. Who was he? Did his conditioned fears remain? Is he still alive?
Beck, Levinson, and Irons researched Little Albert extensively and published their findings. See Michael Britt’s powerpoint summarizing their research findings here:

26. Mary C. Jones
Another important discovery that was made due to Watson’s research came from one of his students, Mary C. Jones. She found that you could also turn conditioning into a positive process and use it to cure people (especially children) of certain phobias. In this case, the feared item is continually paired with a favored item until an association is made. This method is still used today to remove all manner of fears-elevators, snakes, dogs, the dark, clowns, etc.
Example: A 3 year old named Peter was afraid of rabbits. Jones paired the rabbit repeatedly with food that Peter liked, all the while bringing the rabbit closer and closer to Peter. Through this process, Peter eventually lost his fear of rabbits.

27. Pavlov’s Legacy
Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures.
Preview Question 6: Why is Pavlov’s work important?
Ivan Pavlov
( )

28. More Classical Conditioning Terminology
Pavlov spent the rest of his life outlining his ideas. He came up with 6 critical terms that together make up classical conditioning.
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination/Distinction
Higher-Order Conditioning

29. Acquisition The initial stage of learning.
The phase where an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
Does timing matter?
In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.
The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second.
Stimulus contiguity = the occurring of stimuli together in time and space

30. The timing of the acquisition process, cont.
So when do you ring the bell in a classical conditioning task? What works best? Of the three types of conditioning (simultaneous, short-delayed, and trace), short-delayed conditioning appears to most promote acquisition of a classically conditioned response…ideally the delay should be very brief, about ½ a second.
3 types of Classical Conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together
Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together
Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented
So when do you sound the tone in a classical conditioning task? What works best? Of the three types of conditioning (simultaneous, short-delayed, and trace), short-delayed conditioning appears to most promote acquisition of a classically conditioned response…ideally the delay should be very brief, about ½ a second.

31. Extinction The diminishing of a conditioned response.
The CR (salivation) will eventually “become extinct” when the UCS (food) does not follow the CS (experimenter or bell).
Is extinction permanent?

32. Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (experimenter or bell) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
Figure 8.5 Idealized curve of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

33. Figure 6.7: Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.
During acquisition, the strength of the dog’s conditioned response (measured by the amount of salivation) increases rapidly, then levels off near its maximum. During extinction, the CR declines erratically until it’s extinguished. After a “rest” period in which the dog is not exposed to the CS, a spontaneous recovery occurs, and the CS once again elicits a (weakened) CR. Repeated presentations of the CS alone reextinguish the CR, but after another “rest” interval, a weaker spontaneous recovery occurs.

34. Stimulus Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses.
Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature devices that made vibrations (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped.

35. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination (or Distinction) is the opposite of generalization; that is, the response is to a specific stimulus… similar stimuli don’t work.
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

36. Figure 6.9: Generalization gradients.
In a study of stimulus generalization, an organism is typically conditioned to respond to a specific CS, such as a 1200-hertz tone, and then is tested with similar stimuli, such as other tones between 400 and 2000 hertz. Graphs of the organism’s responding are called generalization gradients. The graphs normally show, as depicted here, that generalization declines as the similarity between the original CS and the new stimuli decreases. When an organism gradually learns to discriminate between a CS and similar stimuli, the generalization gradient tends to narrow around the original CS (as shown in orange).
Figure 6.9: Generalization gradients.
In a study of stimulus generalization, an organism is typically conditioned to respond to a specific CS, such as a 1200-hertz tone, and then is tested with similar stimuli, such as other tones between 400 and 2000 hertz. Graphs of the organism’s responding are called generalization gradients. The graphs normally show, as depicted here, that generalization declines as the similarity between the original CS and the new stimuli decreases. When an organism gradually learns to discriminate between a CS and similar stimuli, the generalization gradient tends to narrow around the original CS (as shown in orange).
Fig. 6-9, p. 223

37. Higher-Order Conditioning
(Squirt bottle demonstration)
Higher-Order Conditioning
Higher-order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS to establish new conditioning (condition to respond to a tone with saliva, pair the tone with a light).
Figure 6.10: Higher-order conditioning.
Higher-order conditioning involves a two-phase process. In the first phase, a neutral stimulus (such as a tone) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as meat powder) until it becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the response originally evoked by the UCS (such as salivation). In the second phase, another neutral stimulus (such as a red light) is paired with the previously established CS, so that it also acquires the capacity to elicit the response originally evoked by the UCS.

38. Cognitive Processes and Biological Constraints
New research has greatly changed the way we think about conditioning, with both biological and cognitive influences having been discovered.

39. Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various organisms could be reduced to mindless mechanisms. They considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints.
Later behaviorists, like Rescorla and Wagner (1972), disagreed.
They suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus.
Experimented with rats using tone, light (sometimes), and electric shock
Rats feared the tone, but not the light, even though the light was always followed by a shock.
The light added no new information; the tone was a better predictor of the shock.
This led to the Signal Relations theory, which illustrates that the predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning.

40. Cognitive Processes, cont.
Treating alcoholics with classical conditioning
Lace alcohol with nausea inducing drugs
Patient knows to blame the nausea on the drug, not the alcohol
Similar treatment has had limited success

41. Biological Predispositions
Early researchers believed that the laws of learning were basically the same in all species. Therefore, a pigeon and a person would not differ in their learning (any natural response could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus, in any animal).
However, behaviorists later suggested that each species has predispositions that prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its survival.
Rats develop taste aversions to poisoned bait
Birds (that hunt by sight) develop aversions to the sight of tainted food
Humans develop taste aversions to novel foods after getting sick (not the restaurant, plates, people, or music).

42. Biological Predispositions: Taste Aversions
Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired, after only one trial and when the stimuli are not contiguous (i.e., becoming ill occurs hours after eating a food), suggesting that there is a biological mechanism at work.
Figure 6.22: Conditioned taste aversion.
Martin Seligman’s aversion to sauce béarnaise was clearly the product of classical conditioning. However, as the text explains, his acquisition of this response appeared to violate basic principles of classical conditioning. This paradox was resolved by John Garcia’s work on conditioned taste aversions (see the text).

43. Biological Predispositions
Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not.
Courtesy of John Garcia
John Garcia

44. Figure 6.23: Garcia and Koelling’s research on conditioned taste aversion.
In a landmark series of studies, Garcia and Koelling (1966) demonstrated that some stimulus-response associations are much easier to condition than others. Their apparatus is depicted here. Rats drink saccharin-flavored water out of the tube on the right. When they make contact with the tube, they may trigger a bright light and buzzer, a brief electric shock, or radiation exposure that will make them nauseated. This setup allowed Garcia and Koelling to pair various types of stimuli, as discussed in your text.
Figure 6.23: Garcia and Koelling’s research on conditioned taste aversion.
In a landmark series of studies, Garcia and Koelling (1966) demonstrated that some stimulus-response associations are much easier to condition than others. Their apparatus is depicted here. Rats drink saccharin-flavored water out of the tube on the right. When they make contact with the tube, they may trigger a bright light and buzzer, a brief electric shock, or radiation exposure that will make them nauseated. This setup allowed Garcia and Koelling to pair various types of stimuli, as discussed in your text.

45. Biological Predispositions
Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

46. Why is the woman framed in red considered more attractive than the one who’s not?
Figure 7.8 Romantic red Myers: Psychology, Ninth Edition Copyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers
Humans might be “naturally disposed” to learn to associate female sexuality with the color red.
It is ecologically relevant (similar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in the natural environment)
For example, “Female primates display red when nearing ovulation. In human females, enhanced blood flow produces the red blush of flirtation and sexual excitation” (300).
Ecological relevance like this can make conditioning happen faster and can make it last longer.

47. Applications and Examples of Classical Conditioning

48. Functions and Practical Uses of Classical Conditioning
It helps an animal survive and reproduce
By responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid dangers, defeat rivals, locate mates, and produce offspring
Quit bad habits (alcoholics, smokers)
Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.
Train wolves and coyotes to leave sheep alone
Taking advantage of the ease with which conditioned taste aversions can be established, sheep ranchers have reduced coyotes’ attacks on their livestock by spreading tainted sheep carcasses around their ranches. The coyotes develop a conditioned response of nausea brought on by the sight of sheep.

49. Functions and Practical Uses of Classical Conditioning, cont.
Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response (refer to your Video Tool Kit for the story of a young woman who was able to use this method to fight lupus (“Classical Conditioning and the Immune System: Combating Lupus”).)
Figure 6.6: Classical conditioning of immunosuppression.
When a neutral stimulus is paired with a drug that chemically causes immunosuppression, it can become a CS that elicits immunosuppression on its own. Thus, even the immune response can be influenced by classical conditioning.

50. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.
Brown Brothers
John B. Watson

51. Examples of Classical Conditioning
Using electric wires to keep cows in a field
UCS – Electric shock
UCR – Jump back
CS – Wire
CR – Stay away
Electric can openers and cats
UCS – Food
UCR – Run into the kitchen
CS – Can opener
CR – Run into the kitchen

52. Examples of Classical Conditioning, cont.
Sexually arousing male Japanese Quail
UCS – Female quail
UCR – Sexually aroused
CS – Red light
CR – Sexually aroused
Pavlov teaching his dog to attack Freud’s cat 
UCS – Getting beaten w/the cat
UCR – Attacking the cat
CS – Bell
CR – Attack Freud’s cat
Unbeknownst to most students of psychology, Pavlov’s first experiment was to ring a bell and cause his dog to attack Freud's cat.

53. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (ch. 26)
(Harry is trying to break into the goblin's bank to steal something from one of the vaults) A gigantic dragon was tethered to the ground in front of them, barring access to four or five of the deepest vaults in the place. The beast's scales had turned pale and flaky during its long incarceration under the ground; its eyes were milkily pink; both rear legs bore heavy cuffs from which chains led to enormous pegs driven deep into the rocky floor. Its great spiked wings, folded close to its body, would have filled the chamber if it spread them, and when it turned its ugly head toward them, it roared with a noise that made the rock tremble, and spat a jet of fire that sent them running back up the passageway. "It is partially blind," panted Griphook, "but even more savage for that. However, we have the means to control it. It has learned what to expect when the Clankers come. Give them to me." Ron passed the bag to Griphook and the goblin pulled out a number of small metal instruments that when shaken made a loud, ringing noise like miniature hammers on anvils "You know what to do," Griphook told Harry, Ron, and Hermione. "It will expect pain when it hears the noise: it will retreat..." They advanced around the corner again, shaking the Clankers, and the noise echoed off the rocky walls, grossly magnified, so the inside of Harry's skull seemed to vibrate with the din. The dragon let out another hoarse roar, then retreated. Harry could see it trembling, and as they drew nearer he saw the scars made by vicious slashes across its face, and guessed that it had been taught to fear hot swords when it heard the sound of the Clankers...

54. Political candidates are very savvy about the potential power of classical conditioning. For example, they like to be seen in public with popular celebrities who elicit positive feelings among many voters.
Political candidates are very savvy about the potential power of classical conditioning. For example, they like to be seen in public with popular celebrities who elicit positive feelings among many voters.

55. Figure 7.9 Biopsychosocial influences on learning Myers: Psychology, Ninth Edition Copyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers