1. Energy and Hazardous Waste

2. Coal Ch 19: 531-536

3. We use a variety of energy sources We use energy in our homes, machinery, and vehicles and to provide comfort and conveniences Most of our energy comes from the sun -Solar, wind, hydroelectric, photosynthesis, biomass Fossil fuels = highly combustible substances from the remains of organisms from past geologic ages A great deal of energy emanates from Earth’s core -Geothermal power Immense amounts of energy reside in an atom’s bonds -This energy provides us with nuclear power

4. Fossil fuels: our dominant source of energy Global consumption is at its highest level ever The high-energy content of fossil fuels makes them efficient to burn, ship, and store Electricity = a secondary form of energy that is easy to transfer and apply to a variety of uses Oil, coal, and natural gas have replaced biomass as our dominant sources of energy

5. Fossil fuels are created from fossils Fossil fuels were formed from organisms that lived 100–500 million years ago Aerobic decomposition = organic material is broken down and recycled in the presence of air Anaerobic decomposition = occurs with little or no air -Deep lakes, swamps -Produces fossil fuels

6. Fossil fuel reserves are unevenly distributed Some regions have substantial reserves -Whereas others have very few How long a nation’s reserves will last depends on how much the nation extracts, uses, exports, and imports Nearly 67% of the world’s proven reserves of crude oil lie in the Middle East -Russia holds the most natural gas -The U.S. possesses more coal than any other country

7. Developed nations consume lots of energy People in developed regions consume far more energy than those in developing nations -Using 100 times more energy per person Energy use in industrialized nations is evenly divided between transportation, industry, and other uses Developing nations use energy for subsistence activities -Agriculture, food preparation, and home heating -They use manual or animal energy, not fossil fuels

8. It takes energy to make energy We don’t get energy for free To harness, extract, process, and deliver energy requires substantial inputs of energy -Drilling for oil requires roads, wells, vehicles, storage tanks, pipes, housing, etc. -All this requires energy Net energy = the difference between energy returned and energy invested -Net energy = energy returned – energy invested

9. Energy returned on investment (EROI) Energy returned on investment (EROI) = energy returned/energy invested -Higher ratios mean we receive more energy than we invest -Fossil fuels have high EROI EROI ratios can change -They decline when we extract the easiest deposits first -We now must work harder to extract the remaining reserves -U.S. oil EROI ratios have gone from 100:1 to 5:1

10. Coal The world’s most abundant fossil fuel -Created 300–400 million years ago Coal = organic matter (woody plant material) -Compressed under very high pressure in swamps to form dense, solid carbon structures -Very little decomposition occurred

11. Coal is mined using two major methods Strip mining = for deposits near the surface -Heavy machinery removes huge amounts of earth to expose the coal Subsurface mining = underground deposits are reached by digging tunnels to follow seams (layers) of coal Mountaintop removal = entire mountaintops are cut off -Environmentally destructive -Common in the Appalachian Mountains

12. Coal use has a long history Cultures have used coal for centuries -Ancient China, Roman Empire, the Hopi nation Coal helped drive the Industrial Revolution -It fueled furnaces to produce steam Coal is used to generate electricity -Converting water to steam, which turns a turbine The U.S. and China are the primary producers and consumers of coal -It provides half the U.S. electrical generating capacity

13. Coal varies in its qualities Coal varies in water and carbon content and its amount of potential energy Peat = organic material that is broken down anaerobically -It is wet, near the surface, and not well compressed Additional pressure, heat, and time turn peat into coal -Lignite = least compressed -Sub-bituminous and bituminous -Anthracite = most compressed and has the most energy

14. Ranks of Coal Lignite: A brownish-black coal of low quality (i.e., low heat content per unit) with high inherent moisture and volatile matter. Energy content is lower 4000 BTU/lb. Subbituminous: Black lignite, is dull black and generally contains 20 to 30 percent moisture Energy content is 8,300 BTU/lb. Bituminous: most common coal is dense and black (often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material). Its moisture content usually is less than 20 percent. Energy content about 10,500 Btu / lb. Anthracite :A hard, black lustrous coal, often referred to as hard coal, containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. Energy content of about 14,000 Btu/lb.

15. Coal contains impurities It has sulfur, mercury, arsenic, and other trace metals The sulfur content depends on whether coal was formed in salt water or freshwater -Coal in the eastern U.S. is high in sulfur because it was formed in marine sediments Impurities are emitted when coal is burned -Unless pollution control measures are used -Ways to reduce pollution must be found The Earth holds enough coal to last a few hundred years

16. Coal Use If coal consumption in the U.S. increases by 4% a year – as the industry projects – the reserves here would last only 64 years -Coal has a severe environmental effect on air, water, and land, and over 33% of the world’s annual CO 2 emissions come from coal -Coal emissions cause thousands of premature deaths, at least 50,000 cases of respiratory disease, and several billion dollars of property damage

17. Clean coal technologies Clean coal technologies = technologies, equipment, and approaches to remove chemical contaminants while generating electricity from coal Scrubbers chemically convert or remove pollutants -Removing sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides Coal that contains lots of water can be dried Gasification = coal is converted into cleaner synthesis gas (syngas) -Which can be used to turn a gas or steam turbine These technologies have reduced pollution -But clean coal is still a dirty way to generate power

18. Can we capture and store carbon? Even very clean coal still releases greenhouse gases Carbon capture and carbon storage (sequestration) -CCS captures CO 2 emissions -Then converts it to a liquid and stores it underground or in the ocean The $1.5 billion FutureGen project will design, construct, and operate a coal-burning power plant for electricity while capturing and storing carbon underground This technology is still too unproven to depend on -It prolongs our dependence on fossil fuels

19. Advantages and Disadvantages of Coal Cons Dirtiest fuel, highest carbon dioxide Major environmental degradation Major threat to health Pros Most abundant fossil fuel Major U.S. reserves 300 yrs. at current consumption rates High net energy yield

20. Oil Ch 19: 538-545

21. Heat and pressure form petroleum Oil is the world’s most used fuel -Accounts for 35% of world’s energy use -The U.S. uses the most, but China’s and India’s use is increasing Crude oil (petroleum) = a mixture of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbon molecules -Formed 1.5–3 km (1–2 mi) underground -Dead organic material was buried in marine sediments and transformed by time, heat, and pressure

22. Petroleum geologists find deposits Petroleum occurs in isolated deposits -Collecting in porous layers under impermeable layers Geologists drill cores and survey the ground and air to predict where fossil fuels may lie Of the 11.6–31.5 billion barrels of oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, only 4.3–11.8 billion barrels are “technologically recoverable” with current technology

23. Not all oil can be extracted Some oil is so hard to extract, it is not worth the cost -As prices rise, economically recoverable amounts approach technically recoverable amounts Technology limits what can be extracted -Economics determines how much will be extracted Proven recoverable reserve = the amount of oil (or any other fossil fuel) that is technically and economically feasible to remove under current conditions

24. We drill to extract oil Exploratory drilling = small, deep holes to determine whether extraction should be done Oil is under pressure and often rises to the surface -Drilling reduces pressure, and oil becomes harder to extract Primary extraction = the initial drilling and pumping of available oil Secondary extraction = solvents, water, or steam is used to remove additional oil, but it is expensive We lack the technology to remove every bit of oil -As prices rise, it becomes economical to reopen a well

25. Oil in U.S. 2.9% of world reserves uses nearly 30% of world reserves; 65% for transportation; increasing dependence on imports. www.bio.miami.edu/beck/esc101/Chapter14&15.ppt

26. We may have depleted half our reserves We have used up 1.1 trillion barrels of oil -Half our reserves Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio) = the amount of total remaining reserves divided by the annual rate of production (extraction and processing) At current levels of production (30 billion barrels/year), we have about 40 years of oil left We will face a crisis not when we run out of oil, but when the rate of production begins to decline

27. Peak oil Oil production peak follows oil discovery peak, usually 25- 40 years later. Peak oil is the point at which we can no longer increase the amount of crude oil we extract and globally petroleum production goes into irreversible decline. This typically happens when an oil province has extracted roughly ½ of all the oil that is ever going to be extracted from that province - it is not when the oil runs out. Means that about half the oil has been produced -Does not mean “running out of oil” -Does mean a continuous decline in production -Globally we are now discovering 1 barrel of oil for every 5 or 6 that we use.

28. Predicting an exact date for peak oil is hard We won’t recognize that we have passed peak production until several years have passed -Companies and governments do not disclose their amount of oil supply -Disagreement among geologists about reserves -Some estimates predict greater than expected reserves Peak production will occur -Our lives will be profoundly affected

29. Oil Discovery/Production Peaks – U.S. 1930 – U.S. “lower 48” Oil Discovery Peak year 1970 – U.S. “lower 48” Oil Production Peak year Peak discovery/peak production lag time of 40 years

30. USA Oil -The U.S. has only 2.9% of the world’s proven oil reserves and about 25% of it comes from offshore drilling and from Alaska’s North Slope -U.S. uses about 26% of crude oil extracted worldwide each year -U.S. oil extraction has declined since 1985 and it costs more to extract -in 2010, the U.S. imported about 60% of the oil it used -could be 64-70% by 2020

31. OPEC Eleven OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries have 78% of the world’s proven oil reserves -Control of oil reserves is the single greatest source of global economic and political power -Saudi Arabia has the largest supply of oil reserves with 25% -OPEC nations are almost all in the Middle East -It is thought that their production of global oil will increase from 30% at present to 50% in the future -Oil is the most widely used resource in the world -Oil producing areas are often very volatile and may be subject to terrorist attacks

32. The Future of Oil -Known and projected global reserves should last 42–93 years, and U.S. reserves for 10– 48 years depending on how rapidly we use oil -Oil production is expected to peak sometime between 2010 and 2030 -Oil will become increasingly more expensive

33. How Long Will the Oil Party Last? Saudi Arabia could supply the world with oil for about 10 years. -The Alaska’s North Slope could meet the world oil demand for 6 months (U.S: 3 years). -Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge would meet the world demand for 1-5 months (U.S: 7-25 months).

34. Future of Oil, continued Use of oil at current rates means we need to discover oil reserves equal to a new Saudi Arabian supply every 10 years -Many developing countries, such as China and India, are rapidly expanding their use of oil -If everyone in the world used as much oil as the average American, the world’s proven reserves would be gone in a decade

35. When will Oil Production Peak? There are 98 countries in the word that produce oil, some large some small. The countries in red are the countries that are now ‘post peak’. Their oil production is now in decline and nothing they can do will ever reverse that. Of 98 producers 64 have already peaked

36. Heavy Oils from Oil Sand and Oil Shale Heavy and tarlike oils from oil sand and oil shale could supplement conventional oil, but there are environmental problems. -High sulfur content. -Extracting and processing produces: -Toxic sludge -Uses and contaminates larges volumes of water -Requires large inputs of natural gas which reduces net energy yield. -It takes about 1.8 metric tons of oil sand to produce one barrel of oil.

37. Tar Sands -Oil sand or tar sand is a mixture of clay, sand, water, and organic material called bitumen – thick, sticky heavy oil with a high sulfur content -Oil sands reserves have only recently been considered to be part of the world's oil reserves, as higher oil prices and new technology enable profitable extraction and processing. -Extraction and processing uses a great deal of energy, reducing net energy yield for the oil -Produces more water pollution, air pollution, and more CO 2 /unit energy than conventional crude oil -NE Alberta, Canada, has about 75% of the world’s oil sand reserves

38. Oil Shales Oil shales contain a solid combustible mixture of hydrocarbons called kerogen. -Estimated that there are 240 times more global supplies than for conventional oil; currently too expensive

39. Alternative fossil fuels have downsides Their net energy values are low because they are expensive to extract and process -They have low energy returned on investment (EROI) ratios (about 2:1 compared to oil’s 5:1) Extraction devastates the landscape and pollutes waterways -Oil sands and oils use strip mining and pollute water -Alberta’s oil sands mined 30 years ago still have not recovered Combustion emits as much greenhouse gases and pollution as oil, coal, and gas

40. Where are we now? The world now consumes 85 million barrels of oil per day, or 40,000 gallons per second, and demand is growing exponentially. -90% of all known reserves are now in production -There have been no significant discoveries of new oil since 2002. -World production is estimated to peak between 2014 and 2020 -It does not mean we will run out of oil -However, it does mean we will run out of high quality, easy to get (cheaper) oil -Production of oil WILL decline in our lifetimes!

41. Nuclear Power Ch 20: 563-576

42. Alternatives to fossil fuels Our global economy is powered by fossil fuels -These fuels also power ⅔ of electricity generation Fossil fuels are limited and pollute -We need to shift to resources that are less easily depleted and environmentally gentler

43. Conventional alternatives We have alternatives to fossil fuels -They are renewable and less polluting and harmful But they are more expensive in the short term when external costs are not included in market prices The most widely used “conventional alternatives” to fossil fuels: -Nuclear, hydroelectric, and biomass energy They exert less environmental impact -These are intermediates along a continuum of renewability

44. Nuclear power Nuclear energy occupies an odd and conflicted position in our debate over energy It is free of air pollution produced by fossil fuels -Yet it has been clouded by weaponry, waste disposal, and accidents Public safety concerns have led to limited development The U.S. generates the most electricity from nuclear power -But only 20% of U.S. electricity comes from nuclear -France gets 76% of its electricity from nuclear power

45. Fission releases nuclear energy Nuclear energy = the energy that holds together protons and neutrons within the nucleus of an atom Nuclear fission = the splitting apart of atomic nuclei -The reaction that drives the release of nuclear energy in power plants This chain reaction keeps a constant output of energy Nuclei of large atoms are bombarded with neutrons, releasing energy and neutrons

46. Nuclear energy comes from uranium Nuclear reactors = facilities within nuclear power plants Nuclear fuel cycle = the process that begins when uranium is mined Radioisotopes = emit subatomic particles and high-energy radiation as they decay into lighter radioisotopes -They become stable isotopes Uranium-235 decays into lead- 207 Uranium is used for nuclear power because it is radioactive

47. Nuclear reactors use uranium-235 Over 99% of uranium occurs as uranium-238 ( 238 U) -It does not emit enough neutrons for a chain reaction -So we use 235 U, with a half-life of 700 million years 235 U is enriched to 3% and formed into pellets (UO 2 ) -Which are incorporated into fuel rods used in nuclear reactors After several years in a reactor, uranium is depleted -The fuel no longer generates enough energy Spent fuel can be reprocessed, but it is expensive -So it is disposed of as radioactive waste

48. Fission in reactors generates electricity A moderator = a substance (water or graphite) that slows the neutrons bombarding uranium -Allows fission to begin in a nuclear reactor -Excess neutrons must be soaked up Control rods = a metallic alloy that absorbs neutrons -They are placed into the reactor among the water- bathed fuel rods -They are moved into and out of the water to control the rate of the reaction

49. A nuclear power plant The reactor core is housed in a reactor vessel -The vessel, steam generator, and plumbing are located in a containment building Containment buildings are constructed to prevent leaks of radioactivity due to accidents or natural catastrophes -Not all nations require containment buildings

50. Breeder reactors make better use of fuel Breeder reactors use 238 U (normally a waste product) -A neutron is added to 238 U to form 239 Pu (plutonium) They make better use of fuel, generate more power, and produce less waste But breeder reactors are more dangerous than conventional reactors -Its highly reactive coolant raises the risk of explosions -Plutonium can be used in nuclear weapons -They also are more expensive Most of the world’s breeder reactors have been closed

51. Fusion remains a dream Nuclear fusion = forces together small nuclei of lightweight elements under extremely high temperature and pressure Drives the sun’s output of energy and hydrogen (thermonuclear) bombs If we could control fusion, we could produce vast amounts of energy from water Tremendous energy is released when deuterium and tritium are fused to form helium

52. Nuclear power delivers energy cleanly Nuclear power helps us avoid emitting 600 million metric tons of carbon each year Power plants pose fewer health risks from pollution -They are safer for workers than coal-fired plants Uranium mining damages less land than coal mining Drawbacks of nuclear power: -Nuclear waste is radioactive -If an accident or sabotage occurs, the consequences can be catastrophic The world has 436 operating nuclear plants in 30 nations

53. Nuclear power poses small risks, but… It poses the possibility of catastrophic accidents The most serious accident in the U.S. = Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania in 1979 Meltdown = coolant water drained from the reactor Temperatures rose inside the reactor core … Melting the metal surrounding the fuel rods … Releasing radiation The emergency could have been far worse

54. Three Mile Island March 29, 1979, a reactor near Harrisburg, PA lost coolant water because of mechanical and human errors and suffered a partial meltdown 50,000 people evacuated & another 50,000 fled area Unknown amounts of radioactive materials released Partial cleanup & damages cost $1.2 billion Released radiation increased cancer rates.

55. Chernobyl April 26, 1986, reactor explosion (Ukraine) flung radioactive debris into atmosphere Health ministry reported 3,576 deaths Green Peace estimates32,000 deaths; About 400,000 people were forced to leave their homes ~160,000 sq km (62,00 sq mi) contaminated > Half million people exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity Cost of incident > $358 billion

56. Genetic damages: from mutations that alter genes Genetic defects can become apparent in the next generation Somatic damages: to tissue, such as burns, miscarriages & cancers Effects of Radiation

57. 1. Low-level radiation (Gives of low amount of radiation) Sources: nuclear power plants, hospitals & universities Currently depositted into landfills 2. High-level radiation (Gives of large amount of radiation) Fuel rods from nuclear power plants Half-time of Plutonium 239 is 24000 years No agreement about a safe method of storage Radioactive Waste

58. Fukushima, Japan Following the earthquake and tsunami on March 11 th, 2011, a series of equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns, and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant in Japan. It is the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 Immediately after the earthquake, the reactors shut down automatically, and emergency generators came online to control electronics and coolant systems. -However, the tsunami following the earthquake flooded the rooms in which the emergency generators were kept. The flooded generators failed, cutting power to the pumps that must continuously circulate coolant water through a nuclear reactor to keep it from melting down.

59. Fukushima, Japan As the pumps stopped, the reactors overheated due to the high radioactive decay heat that normally continues for hours or days after a nuclear reactor shuts down. -At this point, only prompt flooding of the reactors with seawater could have cooled the reactors quickly enough to prevent meltdown. Salt water flooding was delayed because it would ruin the costly reactors permanently. Flooding with seawater was finally ordered, but at this point it was already too late to prevent meltdown. The accident was rated a Level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale the maximum scale value There were no immediate deaths due to direct radiation exposures, but at least six workers have exceeded lifetime legal limits for radiation and more than 300 have received significant radiation doses. Predicted future cancer deaths due to accumulated radiation exposures in the population living near Fukushima have ranged from none to 100

60. Smaller-scale accidents have occurred Western reactors are safer than Chernobyl -But smaller accidents have occurred -A 1999 accident in Japan killed two workers and exposed 400 others to radiation Aging plants require more maintenance and are less safe -Recent terrorist attacks raised fears that similar attacks could be carried out against nuclear plants -Or stolen radioactive material could be used in attacks The U.S. “megatons to megawatts” program buys radioactive material from the former Soviet Union -Using it in power plants

61. RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT Until 1970, the US, Britain, France, and Japan disposed of radioactive waste in the ocean. Production of 1,000 tons of uranium fuel typically generates 100,000 tons of tailings and 3.5 million liters of liquid waste. - Now approximately 200 million tons of radioactive waste in piles around mines and processing plants in the US.

62. Radioactive Waste Management About 100,000 tons of low-level waste (clothing) and about 15,000 tons of high-level (spent-fuel) waste in the US. - For past 20 years, spent fuel assemblies have been stored in deep water-filled pools at the power plants. (Designed to be “temporary”.) - Many internal pools are now filled and a number plants are storing nuclear waste in metal dry casks outside.

63. Radioactive Waste 1. Bury it deep underground. Problems: i.e. earthquake, groundwater… 2. Shoot it into space or into the sun. Problems: costs, accident would affect large area. 3. Bury it under the Antarctic ice sheet. Problems: long-term stability of ice is not known, global warming 4. Most likely plan for the US Bury it into Yucca Mountain in desert of Nevada However, this is controversial, and is currently a dead issue Cost of over $ 50 billion 160 miles from Las Vegas Transportation across the country via train & truck

64. Waste storage at Yucca Mountain, Nevada It is safer to store all waste in a central repository -It can be heavily guarded Yucca Mountain, Nevada was chosen for this site -President Obama’s administration does not support it So waste will remain at its current locations

65. Benefits of storing waste at Yucca Mountain It is remote and unpopulated It has minimal risk of earthquakes that could damage the tunnels and release radioactivity Its dry climate reduces chances of groundwater contamination The water table is deep underground, making groundwater contamination less likely It is on federal land that can be protected from sabotage

66. Concerns with Yucca Mountain as a site Some argue that earthquakes and volcanoes could destabilize the site’s geology Fissures in the rock could allow rainwater to seep into the caverns Nuclear waste will need to be transported there -From current storage areas, and from future nuclear plants and military installations -Shipments by rail and truck over thousands of miles could cause a high risk of accident or sabotage

67. Nuclear Power After 1975, only 13 orders in the USA were placed for new nuclear reactors, and all of those were subsequently cancelled. - In all, 100 of 140 reactors on order in 1975 were cancelled. - Construction costs, declining demand for electrical power, safety fears - Electricity from nuclear power plants was about half the price of coal in 1970, but twice as much in 1990.

68. Use of Nuclear Energy U.S. phasing out, while some countries (France, Japan) investing increasingly U.S. currently ~7% of energy nuclear No new U.S. power plants ordered since 1978 40% of 105 commercial nuclear power expected to be retired by 2015 and all by 2030 North Korea is getting new plants from the US France 78% energy nuclear

69. Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants Most plants are designed for a 30 year operating life. - Only a few plants have thus far been decommissioned. Multi-billion-$$ construction costs High operation costs Frequent malfunctions False assurances and cover–ups Overproduction of energy in some areas Poor management Lack of public acceptance - General estimates are costs will be 2-10 times more than original construction costs.

70. The future of nuclear energy 75% of nuclear power plants in Western Europe will be retired by 2030 -But some nations are rethinking this because of concerns over climate change Asian nations are increasing nuclear capacity - 56 plants are under construction The U.S. nuclear industry has stopped building plants -Expanding nuclear capacity would decrease reliance on fossil fuels and cut greenhouse gas emissions -Engineers are planning ways to make nuclear power plants safer and less expensive

71. Changing Fortunes With natural gas prices soaring, and electrical shortages looming, many sectors are once again promoting nuclear reactors. - Over the past 50 years, the US government has provided $150 billion in nuclear subsidies, but less than $5 billion to renewable energy research.

72. Natural Gas and Peak Oil Ch 19: 536-537

73. Natural Gas Natural gas, made mostly of methane, is often found above reservoirs of crude oil. -Cleanest fossil fuel to burn -Natural gas is sometimes burned off as an unwanted by-product of oil drilling -Unconventional natural gas is found in other underground sources -Methane hydrate is about twice as abundant as the earth’s oil, natural gas, and coal resources combined

74. Natural Gas Natural gas is a versatile fuel -Useful in vehicles -Heat homes -Used to generate 20-24% of our electricity -Natural gas-fueled turbines are cheaper to build, require less time to install, and easier to maintain than coal and nuclear power plants

75. Natural gas is formed in two ways Natural gas = methane (CH 4 ) and other volatile hydrocarbons Biogenic gas = pure methane created at shallow depths by bacterial anaerobic decomposition of organic matter -“Swamp gas” Thermogenic gas = methane and other gases arise from compression and heat deep underground -Most of the gas that is extracted commercially Kerogen = organic matter that results when carbon bonds begin breaking -Source material for natural gas and crude oil

76. Natural gas burns more cleanly than coal The fastest growing fossil fuel in use today -25% of global commercial energy consumption It is versatile and clean-burning -Emits ½ as much CO 2 as coal, ⅔ as much as oil It is used to generate electricity, heat homes, and cook Liquefied natural gas (LNG) = gas converted to liquid -Can be shipped but there are risks of explosions Russia leads the world in production -The U.S. leads the world in use World supplies are projected to last about 60 more years

77. Natural gas is often wasted Coalbed methane = from coal seams -Leaks to the atmosphere during mining -Contributes to climate change In remote oil-drilling areas, natural gas is flared (burned off) -In Alaska, gas captured during oil drilling is being reinjected into the ground for future use Landfills produce biogenic natural gas -Operators are capturing and selling it

78. Supplies of Natural Gas Russia and Iran have almost half of the world’s reserves of conventional gas, and global reserves should last 62-125 years. -Natural gas is versatile and clean- burning fuel, but it releases the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (when burned) and methane (from leaks) into the troposphere.

79. Natural Gas Extraction techniques are very expensive at present, but are rapidly being developed -Propane and butane gases are liquefied from a natural gas field and removed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) that is stored in pressurized tanks -Methane is dried of water, cleaned, and pumped into pressurized pipelines for distribution

80. Natural Gas Production Natural gas was burned to provide about 53% of the heat in U.S. homes and 16% of the country’s electricity -U.S. production of natural gas is declining, and a reversal does not seem probable -Canadian imports are possible, but Canadian production is expected to peak between 2020 and 2030 -Shipping of LNG is expensive and reduces net energy yield -It is also flammable and could lead to large-scale fires at receiving terminals

81. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this form of energy? Pros Natural gas burns cleaner than any other fossil fuels We have abundant supplies Most economical way of heating homes Can be used in transportation as a substitute to gasoline Cons Although cleaner than other fossil fuels it still contributes to global warming Methane gas itself is 21x stronger as a greenhouse gas than CO 2 Leaks are dangerous

82. How realistic is this energy currently? Natural gas is abundant and at the current rate of extraction can be used for the next 114 years, and has been utilized for decades But, we have to worry about environmental effects of fracking

83. Natural gas extraction becomes challenging The first gas fields simply required an opening -The gas moved upward Most remaining fields require pumping by horsehead pumps Most accessible reserves have been depleted -Fracturing pumps high-pressure salt water into rocks to crack them

84. Fracking technology Hydraulic fracking = The natural gas extraction process of injecting large volumes of chemically treated water and sand underground to break apart gas- bearing rock formations. -Has been used since 1940s in vertical wells to stimulate production in existing oil/gas wells -This technology has been combined with horizontal drilling and fracturing in the 1980’s and 90’s

85. Issues with Fracking Contamination of groundwater Air quality issues Stress on existing water supply Management of wastewater Disclosure of fracking chemicals

86. What is in fracking fluid? a friction reducer (KCl or petroleum distillate), a biocide (glutaraldehyde), an oxygen scavenger (ammonium bisulfide) or stabilizer (N,n-dimethyl formamide), to prevent corrosion of metal pipes, a surfactant a scale inhibitor (ethylene glycol), HCl acid to remove drilling-mud damage near the borehole, a breaker (sodium chloride, a little salt never hurts), a gel (guar gum or hydroxyethyl cellulose), and an iron controller (2-hydroxy 1, 2, 3- propanetricaboxylic acid). More than 750 different chemicals…

87. BioEnergy Ch 20: 576-585

88. Evaluating Energy Resources U.S. has 4.6% of world population; uses 24% of the world’s energy; -84% from nonrenewable fossil fuels (oil, coal, & natural gas); -7% from nuclear power; -9% from renewable sources (hydropower, geothermal, solar, biomass).

89. Major Types of Renewable Energies Biomass Hydrogen Geothermal Solar Wind Water

90. Bioenergy Bioenergy (biomass energy) = energy obtained from organic material that makes up organisms -Wood, charcoal, agricultural crops, manure Bioenergy has great potential for addressing our energy challenges Over 1 billion people use wood for heat, cooking, and light

91. Overharvesting and developing new sources Biomass is only renewable if it is not overharvested -Overharvesting causes deforestation, erosion, and desertification -Heavily populated arid regions are most vulnerable -Cooking produces indoor air pollution New biomass sources are being developed Biopower = biomass sources are burned in power plants -Generating heat and electricity Biofuels = liquid fuels used to power automobiles

92. Biopower generates electricity Waste products of industries or processes -Woody debris, crop residues Specifically grown crops (fast- growing willow trees, bamboo) Co-firing combines biomass and coal Gasification turn biomass to steam Pyrolysis produces a liquid fuel Many types of biomass are combusted to generate electricity

93. Scales of production Farmers, ranchers, or villages use manure, wood waste, or biogas from digestion to generate electricity -Small household biodigesters work in remote areas The U.S. has dozens of biomass-fueled power plants Biomass power increases efficiency and recycling -It reduces CO 2 emissions and dependence on imported fossil fuels -It is better for health and supports rural economies But burning crops deprives the soil of nutrients -Relying only on bioenergy is not a sustainable option

94. Ethanol can power automobiles Ethanol = a biofuel made by fermenting carbohydrate-rich crops -Ethanol is added to U.S. gasoline to reduce emissions In 2009, 10 billion gallons were made in the U.S. from corn Congressional mandates will increase ethanol production

95. Cars can run on ethanol Flexible-fuel vehicles run on E-85 -85% ethanol, 15% gasoline -8 million cars are in the U.S. -Most gas stations do not yet offer this fuel Bagasse = crushed sugarcane residue used to make ethanol -50% of new Brazilian cars are flexible-fuel vehicles

96. Ethanol may not be sustainable Environmental scientists don’t like corn-based ethanol Growing corn impacts ecosystems -Pesticides, fertilizers, irrigation -Takes up land that could be left unfarmed Ethanol competes with food and drives up food prices -As farmers shifted to ethanol, corn for food dropped -Mexicans could not afford tortillas, and so they rioted Growing corn requires energy for equipment, pesticides, and fertilizers Its EROI ratio is about 1.5:1, so it is inefficient

97. Biodiesel powers engines Biodiesel = produced from vegetable oil, cooking grease, or animal fats Vehicles can run on 100% biodiesel -B20 = 20% biodiesel Biodiesel reduces emissions Its fuel economy is good It costs a bit more than gasoline Crops are specially grown -Using land, deforestation

98. Novel biofuels are being developed Algae produce lipids that can be converted to biodiesel -Their carbohydrates can be fermented to make ethanol It can be grown in ponds, tanks, or photobioreactors Algae grows fast and can be harvested every few days -It can use wastewater, ocean or saline water -It can capture CO 2 emissions to speed its growth Biofuels from algae are currently expensive Cellulosic ethanol = produced from structural plant material (e.g., corn stalks) that has no food value -Switchgrass provides ethanol, habitat, and high EROI

99. Is bioenergy carbon-neutral? In principle, biomass energy releases no net carbon -Photosynthesis removes carbon that is released when biomass is burned Burning biomass is not carbon-neutral: -If forests are destroyed to plant bioenergy crops -If we use fossil fuel energy (tractors, fertilizers, etc.) The Kyoto Protocol gives incentives to destroy forests for biofuel crops -Only emissions from energy use (not land-use changes) are “counted” toward controlling emissions

100. Hydroelectric power (hydropower) Hydropower = uses the kinetic energy of moving water to turn turbines to generate electricity Storage technique = water stored in reservoirs behind dams passes through the dam and turns turbines Run-of-river approach generates electricity without disrupting the river’s flow -Flow water over a small dam that does not impede fish passage -Useful in areas away from electric grids

101. Hydroelectric power is widely used Hydropower accounts for 2.2% of the world’s energy supply -And 15.6% of the world’s electricity production Nations with large rivers and economic resources have used dams However, many countries have dammed their large rivers -People want some rivers left undammed The U.S. government built dams to employ people and help end the economic depression of the 1930s -Engineers exported their dam-building techniques

102. Producing electricity from the water cycle Tidal Power Plant: Ocean tides and waves and temperature differences between surface and bottom waters in tropical waters are not expected to provide much of the world’s electrical needs. -Only two large tidal energy dams are currently operating: one in La Rance, France and Nova Scotia’s bay of Fundy where the tidal amplitude can be as high as 16 meters (63 feet).

103. Hydropower is clean and renewable Hydropower has two clear advantages over fossil fuels for producing electricity: -It is renewable: as long as precipitation fills rivers we can use water to turn turbines -It is clean: no carbon dioxide is emitted Hydropower is efficient -It has an EROI of 10:1 -As high as any modern-day energy source

104. Hydropower has negative impacts Damming rivers destroys wildlife habitats -Upstream areas are submerged -Downstream areas are starved of water Natural flooding cycles are disrupted -Downstream floodplains don’t get nutrients Downstream water is shallower and warmer Periodic flushes of cold reservoir water can kill fish Dams block passage of fish, fragmenting the river and reducing biodiversity Large dams can cause earthquakes or collapse

105. Hydropower may not expand much more China’s Three Gorges Dam is the world’s largest dam -It displaced 1 million people -Generates as much electricity as dozens of coal-fired or nuclear plants Most of the world’s large rivers have already been dammed People have grown aware of the ecological impact of dams and resist more construction Developing nations with rivers will increase hydropower

106. Alternative Energies Ch 21

107. New renewables provide little of our energy New renewables provide energy for electricity, heating, fuel for vehicles Renewables provide only 1% of energy and 18% of our electricity Nations vary in the renewable sources they use Most U.S. renewable energy comes from hydropower

108. The new renewables are growing fast They are growing faster than conventional energy sources -Wind power is growing at 50% per year -Since these sources began at low levels, it will take time to build them up In 2008, we added more energy from renewables than from fossil fuels and nuclear power

109. Solar energy The sun provides energy for Earth’s processes Each square meter of Earth receives about 1 kilowatt of solar energy (energy from the sun) -17 times the energy of a light bulb Passive solar energy = buildings are designed to maximize absorption of sunlight in winter Keep cool in summer Active solar energy collection = uses technology to focus, move, or store solar energy Solar energy has been used for hundreds of years

110. Solar power is fast growing Solar energy was pushed to the sidelines as fossil fuels dominated our economy -Funding has been erratic for research and development Because of a lack of investment, solar energy contributes only a miniscule part of energy production -But solar energy use has increased 31%/year since 1971 Solar energy is attractive in developing nations, where hundreds of millions don’t have electricity Some multinational fossil fuel companies are investing in solar energy

111. Solar Energy Buildings can be heated - passive solar heating system - active solar heating system Solar thermal systems are new technologies that collect and transform solar energy into heat that can be used directly or converted to electricity Photovoltaic cells convert solar energy directly into electricity

112. Solar Heating Passive system: Absorbs & stores heat from the sun directly within a structure Active system: Collectors absorb solar energy, a pump supplies part of the building’s heating or water heating needs. www.bio.miami.edu/beck/esc101/Chapter14&15.ppt

113. Solar Power Around the World Denmark now gets 20% of its electricity from wind and plans to increase this to 50% by 2030. Brazil gets 20% of its gasoline from sugarcane residue. -In 2010, the world’s renewable-energy industries provided 2 million jobs. The European Union got 22% of its electricity from renewable energy by 2010. Costa Rica gets 92% of its energy from renewable resources. China aims to get 10% of its total energy from renewable resources by 2020. -In 2004, California got about 12% of its electricity from wind and plans to increase this to 50% by 2030.

114. Cost is a drawback Up-front costs are high -Solar power is the most expensive way to produce electricity -But prices have dropped and efficiency has increased Fossil fuels and nuclear energy are favored over solar -Government subsidies -Market prices don’t include their external costs Prices are declining and technologies are improving

115. Location is a drawback Not all regions are sunny enough to provide enough power, given current technology -Daily and seasonal variation also poses problems -We need storage (e.g., batteries) and back-up power

116. Wind has long been used for energy Wind energy = energy derived from movement of air -An indirect form of solar energy Wind turbines = devices that convert wind’s kinetic energy into electric energy Windmills have been used for 800 years to pump water After the 1973 oil embargo, governments funded research and development -Moderate funding boosted technological progress -Today’s wind turbines look like airplane propellers or helicopters

117. Wind turbines turn kinetic to electric energy Wind blowing into a turbine turns the blades of the rotor -Which rotate machinery inside a compartment (nacelle) on top of a tall tower Towers are 45–105 m (148–344 ft) tall -Minimizing turbulence and maximizing wind speed

118. Wind farms Wind farms = turbines erected in groups of up to hundreds of turbines Turbines harness wind as efficiently as possible -Different turbines turn at different speeds Slight differences in wind speed yield significant differences in power output -If wind velocity doubles, energy quadruples -Increased speeds cause more air molecules to pass through the turbine, increasing power output

119. Wind is the fastest-growing energy sector Wind power has doubled every 3 years in recent years -Five nations produce 75% of the world’s wind power -But dozens of nations now produce wind power Electricity is almost as cheap as from fossil fuels -So wind power will grow -A long-term federal tax credit would increase wind power even more

120. Offshore sites hold promise Wind speeds are 20% greater over water than over land -Also less air turbulence over water Costs to erect and maintain turbines in water are higher -But more power is produced and it is more profitable Currently, turbines are limited to shallow water The first U.S. offshore wind farm will have 130 turbines -Off Cape Cod, Massachusetts

121. Wind power has many benefits Wind produces no emissions once installed -Prevents the release of CO 2, SO 2, NO x, mercury It is more efficient than conventional power sources -EROI = 23:1 (nuclear = 16:1; coal = 11:1) Turbines use less water than conventional power plants Local areas can become more self-sufficient Farmers and ranchers can lease their land -Produces extra revenue while still using the land Advancing technology is also reducing the cost of wind farm construction

122. Wind power creates job opportunities 35,000 new U.S. jobs were created in 2008 -85,000 employees work in the wind industry Over 100 colleges and universities offer programs and degrees that train people for jobs in renewable energy

123. Wind power has some downsides We have no control over when wind will occur -Limitations on relying on it for electricity -Batteries or hydrogen fuel can store the energy Wind sources are not always near population centers that need energy -Transmission networks need to be expanded Local residents often oppose them -Not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndrome Turbines threaten birds and bats, which can be killed when they fly into rotating blades

124. Wind Power Wind power is the world’s most promising energy resource because it is abundant, inexhaustible, widely distributed, cheap, clean, and emits no greenhouse gases. -Much of the world’s potential for wind power remains untapped. -Capturing only 20% of the wind energy at the world’s best energy sites could meet all the world’s energy demands. -Turbines are hooked up to generator to create and store energy

125. Geothermal energy Geothermal energy = thermal energy from beneath Earth’s surface Radioactive decay of elements under extremely high pressures deep inside the planet generates heat -Which rises through magma, fissures, and cracks -Or heats groundwater, which erupts as geysers or submarine hydrothermal vents Geothermal power plants use hot water and steam for heating homes, drying crops, and generating electricity Geothermal energy provides more electricity than solar -As much as wind

126. Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy can be used to heat buildings and to produce electricity -Geothermal reservoirs can be depleted if heat is removed faster than natural processes renew it, but the potential supply is vast

127. Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy consists of heat stored in soil, underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s mantle. We can use geothermal energy stored in the earth’s mantle to heat and cool buildings and to produce electricity. -A geothermal heat pump (GHP) can heat and cool a house by exploiting the difference between the earth’s surface and underground temperatures.

128. Geothermal Energy Deeper more concentrated hydrothermal reservoirs can be used to heat homes and buildings and spin turbines: -Dry steam: water vapor with no water droplets. -Wet steam: a mixture of steam and water droplets. -Hot water: is trapped in fractured or porous rock.

129. Geothermal power has benefits and limits Geothermal power reduces emissions -Each megawatt of geothermal power prevents release of 15.5 million lb of CO 2 each year But it may not be sustainable if the plant withdraws water faster than it can be recharged -Water or wastewater can be injected into the ground Patterns of geothermal activity in the crust shift Water has salts and minerals that corrode equipment and pollute the air It is limited to areas where the energy can be trapped

130. Heat pumps use temperature differences We can take advantage of natural temperature differences between the soil and air -Soil temperatures vary less than air temperatures -Soil temperatures are nearly constant year round Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) = geothermal pumps heat buildings in the winter by transferring heat from the ground to the building -In summer, heat is transferred from the building to the ground

131. Geothermal Heat Pump The house is heated in the winter by transferring heat from the ground into the house. The process is reversed in the summer to cool the house.

132. Benefits Clean Energy -one sixth of carbon dioxide vs. natural gas -very little if any nitrous oxide or sulfur compounds Availability -24 hours a day, 365 days a year Homegrown Renewable

133. Environmental Effects Only emission is steam Salts and dissolved minerals Some sludge produced -Mineral extraction Little Visual Impact -Small acreage, no fuel storage facilities

134. Production of hydrogen fuel Hydrogen gas does not exist freely on Earth -Energy is used to force molecules to release the hydrogen Electrolysis = electricity splits hydrogen from water 2H 2 O  2H 2 + O 2 -It may cause pollution, depending on the source of electricity The environmental impact of hydrogen production depends on the source of hydrogen -Using methane produces the greenhouse gas CO 2 CH 4 + 2H 2 O  4H 2 + CO 2

135. Fuel cells can produce electricity Once isolated, hydrogen gas can be used as a fuel to produce electricity within fuel cells The chemical reaction is the reverse of electrolysis 2H 2 + O 2  2H 2 O The movement of the hydrogen’s electrons from one electrode to the other creates electricity

136. Hydrogen and fuel cells have costs and benefits Need massive and costly development of infrastructure Leakage of hydrogen can deplete stratospheric ozone We will never run out of hydrogen It can be clean and nontoxic to use It may produce few greenhouse gases and pollutants If kept under pressure, it is no more dangerous than gasoline in tanks Cells are up to 90% energy efficient Fuel cells are silent and nonpolluting and won’t need to be recharged

137. Hydrogen Some energy experts view hydrogen gas as the best fuel to replace oil during the last half of the century, but there are several hurdles to overcome: -Hydrogen is chemically locked up in water an organic compounds. -It takes energy and money to produce it (net energy is low) -Fuel cells are expensive. -Hydrogen may be produced by using fossil fuels.

138. Where is Hydrogen Technology Currently used? Hydrogen fuel cell technology is currently still budding and experimental, and is used mostly in automotive proof-of-concepts. -However, hydrogen could be used in the future to store solar and wind energy for later use. -Currently, hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce and some are fragile

139. Advantages of Hydrogen Energy Emits only water vapor, assuming there is no leakage of hydrogen gas It can store up to 3x as much energy as conventional natural gas It has the best safety record of any industrial gas. Hydrogen is only explosive when it is able to build up in a enclosed space, which is very difficult as it has a habit of escaping (hydrogen is the smallest of all elements). -If it is used in a fuel cell then even these disappear. Furthermore, no greenhouse gases are generated because there's no carbon in the fuel. All that comes out the vehicle's exhaust is drinkable water Using hydrogen as the "battery" to store energy from a nonpolluting, renewable source would result in a truly unlimited supply of clean fuel.

140. Disadvantages of Hydrogen Leakage of hydrogen gas can have detrimental impacts on the stratosphere. -Production of hydrogen gas currently relies on natural gas and electrolysis and to replace all the vehicles would require 10x as much as currently is used. Distribution and infrastructure needs to be refurbished to cope with hydrogen, which can damage metals by making them brittle. -Storage is difficult because hydrogen is such a low density gas Hydrogen is too small of a particle to add a smell molecule to it, making leak detection difficult Use in fuel cells requires catalysts, which usually require a component metal (most often platinum). -Platinum is extremely rare, expensive and environmentally unsound to produce. As of December 2010, cars that run on pure hydrogen cost around $3 million, making them inaccessible to most individuals.

141. Municipal and Solid Waste Ch 22: 618-624, 631-633

142. Wasting Resources In the United States … 4.6% of the world's population 33% of the world's solid waste 75% of its hazardous waste OBJ 24.1

143. Approaches to waste management Waste = any unwanted material or substance that results from human activity or process Municipal solid waste (MSW) = nonliquid waste from homes, institutions, and small businesses -produced directly from homes. -Product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, etc. Industrial solid waste = from production of goods, mining, agriculture, petroleum extraction and refining Hazardous waste = solid or liquid waste that is toxic, chemically reactive, flammable, or corrosive Wastewater = used in a household, business, or industry -Also, polluted runoff from streets and storm drains

144. 144 Solid Waste 98.5% is from - 1. Mining - 2. Oil and gas production - 3. Agriculture - 4. Sewage treatment - 5. Industry 1.5% is municipal solid waste (MSW) OBJ 24.2

145. U.S. waste generation is rising Since 1960, waste generation increased 2.8 times Per capita waste generation increased 67% -Especially plastics

146. MSW In 2008, U.S. residents, businesses, and institutions produced more than 250 million tons of MSW -Approximately 4.5 pounds of waste per person per day (1680 pounds/year) -Up from 2.7 pounds per person per day in 1960

147. Developing nations are producing waste Consumption is greatly increasing in developing nations -Rising standard of living, more packaging, poor- quality goods Wealthy consumers often discard items that can still be used Poor people support themselves by selling items they scavenge from dumps

148. Disposal methods have improved People dumped their garbage wherever it suited them -Open dumping and burning still occur Most industrialized nations bury waste in lined and covered landfills or burn it in incineration facilities -In the U.S., recycling is decreasing pressure on landfills In the U.S., recycling is decreasing pressure on landfills

149. Burying Solid Waste Most of the world’s MSW is buried in landfills that eventually are expected to leak toxic liquids into the soil and underlying aquifers. -Open dumps: are fields or holes in the ground where garbage is deposited and sometimes covered with soil. Mostly used in developing countries. -Sanitary landfills: solid wastes are spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered daily with a fresh layer of clay or plastic foam.

150. Sanitary landfills are regulated Sanitary landfills = waste buried in the ground or piled in large, engineered mounds to prevent contamination and health threats U.S. landfills must meet the EPA’s national standards -Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 Waste is partly decomposed by bacteria and compresses under its own weight to make more space -Soil layers reduce odor, speed decomposition, reduce infestation by pets -Closed landfills must be capped and maintained

151. A typical sanitary landfill To protect against environmental contamination, landfills must be located away from wetlands and earthquake-prone faults, and be 20 ft above the water table Leachate = liquid from trash dissolved by rainwater -It is collected and treated in landfills -But it can escape if the liner is punctured

152. Landfill Design The bottom liner may be layers of clay or other synthetic material (clay, plastic, or composite), which is placed on compacted soil. The bottom of the landfill is sloped and pipes along the bottom collect leachate. It is usually a system of pipes. (These pipes are among a gravel and sand layer.) The leachate is then pumped away and treated at a plant. Trash is dumped onto the landfill and consistently layered with soil to promote safer and better decomposition. A cover is placed over the landfill to keep water out (to prevent eventual leachate formation). Landfills also must have a system to dispose of methane gas. The structure of this system must be carefully engineered. OBJ 24.8

153. Landfills have drawbacks Collection systems won’t be kept up Waste doesn’t decay much -40-year-old newspapers can still be read The not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndrome The “garbage barge” case in Islip, New York in 1987 -Full landfills forced a barge to take the waste to North Carolina, Louisiana, and Mexico -All rejected the medical-waste-contaminated load -After a 6,000 mile journey it returned to New York where the waste was incinerated

154. Federal Landfill Standards Location restrictions ensure that landfills are built in suitable geological areas away from faults, wetlands, flood plains, or other sensitive areas Operating practices such as compacting and covering waste frequently with several inches of soil help reduce odor; control litter, insects, and rodents; and protect public health Groundwater monitoring requires testing groundwater wells to determine whether waste materials have escaped from the landfill

155. Landfills can be transformed after closure Thousands of landfills lie abandoned -Smaller landfills were closed In 1988, the U.S. had 8,000 landfills -Today there are less than 1,800 Cities have converted closed landfills into public parks Once properly capped, old landfills can serve other purposes such as the Cesar Chavez Park in Berkeley, California.

156. Incinerating trash reduces landfill pressure Incineration = a controlled process that burns garbage at very high temperatures Incineration in specially constructed faculties can be an improvement over open-air burning of trash -But the remaining ash must be disposed of in a hazardous waste landfill -Hazardous chemicals are created and released Scrubbers = chemically treat the gases produced in combustion -Remove hazardous parts and neutralize acidic gases

157. Many incinerators create energy Incineration reduces the volume of waste and can generate electricity Waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities = use the heat produced by waste combustion to create electricity -Over 100 facilities are in use across the U.S. -They process nearly 100,000 tons of waste per day -But they take many years to become profitable Companies contract with communities to guarantee a minimum amount of garbage -Long-term commitments interfere with the communities’ efforts to reduce and recycle waste

158. Landfills can produce gas for energy Bacteria decompose waste in a landfill’s oxygen-deficient environment Landfill gas = a mix of gases that consists of 50% methane -Can be collected, processed, and used like natural gas - At Fresh Kills, the city sells the gas for $11 million/year When not used commercially, landfill gas is burned off to reduce odors and greenhouse emissions

159. Industrial solid waste U.S. industries generate 7.6 billion tons of waste/year -97% is wastewater Industrial solid waste = is not municipal or hazardous waste The federal government regulates municipal waste State or local governments regulate industrial solid waste -With federal guidance Waste from factories, mining, agriculture, petroleum extraction, etc.

160. Regulation and economics influence industrial waste generation Most methods and strategies of waste disposal, reduction, and recycling are similar to municipal solid waste State and local regulations are less strict than federal rules Industries may not be required to have permits or install liners or leachate collection systems -Or even monitor groundwater for contamination -It may be cheaper to generate waste than to avoid it -Industries are awarded for economic, not physical, efficiency -So they don’t have incentives to decrease waste

161. Industrial ecology Industrial ecology = redesigning industrial systems to reduce resource inputs while maximizing physical and economic efficiency -Industrial systems should function like ecological systems, with little waste Life cycle analysis = examines the life cycle of a product to make the process more ecologically efficient -Waste products can be used as raw materials -Eliminates harmful products and materials -Creates durable, recyclable, or reusable products

162. An example of industrial ecology Interface, a carpet tile company, cut its waste 80%, fossil fuel use 45%, and water use 70% while saving $30 million/year and raising profits 49%

163. Hazardous Waste Ch 22: 633-640

164. Defining hazardous waste Hazardous waste is a liquid, solid, or gas and is one of the following: -Ignitable = easily catches fire (natural gas, alcohol) -Corrosive = corrodes metals in storage tanks or equipment -Reactive = chemically unstable and readily reacts with other compounds, often explosively or by producing noxious fumes -Toxic = harms human health when inhaled, ingested, or contact human skin

165. Hazardous wastes have diverse sources Industry produces the largest amount of hazardous waste -But waste generation and disposal are highly regulated Households = the largest source of unregulated hazardous waste -Paint, batteries, solvents, cleaners, pesticides, etc. Mining, small businesses, agriculture, utilities, and building demolition all produce hazardous wastes Organic compounds and heavy metals are particularly hazardous because their toxicity persists over time

166. Household Hazardous Waste Common household items such as paints, cleaners, oils, batteries, and pesticides contain hazardous components Labels – danger, warning, caution, toxic, corrosive, flammable, or poison identify products that might contain hazardous materials Leftover portions of these products are called household hazardous waste (HHW) These products, if mishandled, can be dangerous to your health and the environment

167. HW Facts and Figures Americans generate 1.6 million tons of HHW per year The average home can accumulate as much as 100 pounds of HHW in the basement and garage and in storage closets -In 2007, there were more than 3,000 HHW permanent programs and collection events throughout the United States

168. Organic compounds can be hazardous Synthetic organic compounds resist bacterial, fungal, and insect activity -Plastics, tires, pesticides, solvents, wood preservatives -Keep buildings from decaying, kill pests, and keep stored goods intact Their resistance to decay makes them persistent pollutants -They are toxic because they are readily absorbed through the skin -They can act as mutagens, carcinogens, teratogens, and endocrine disruptors

169. Heavy metals can be hazardous Lead, chromium, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, and copper Used widely in industry for wiring, electronics, metal plating and fabrication, pigments, and dyes They enter the environment when they are disposed of improperly Heavy metals that are fat soluble and break down slowly can bioaccumulate and biomagnify

170. Common Toxins in HHW ToxinWhat it isWhere it’s foundHealth effects Mercurya heavy metal that can build up in our tissues Thermometers, batteries, jewelry, appliances, CFL light bulbs Birth defects, learning disabilities, kidney damage, nervous system damage Leada heavy metal that can build up in our tissues lead plumbing pipes found in older homes, lead-based paint, crystal tableware, and some varieties of imported mini-blinds cancer, neurological dysfunction, hormonal imbalances, reproductive problems, and developmental problems in children. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) A POP that can bioaccumulate in food chains Electronics, plastic, paint, pesticides Birth defects, brain damage, cancer, nervous system damage Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) chemicals that are released into the air as gases. air fresheners, hair spray, perfumes, cleaning products, paints, carpets, and furniture made out of pressed wood. Reproductive, respiratory, neurological, and developmental problems. Also linked to different types of cancer

171. “E-waste” is growing Electronic waste (“e-waste”) = waste involving electronic devices -Computers, printers, cell phones, TVs, MP3 players Americans discard 400 million devices/year -67% are still in working order They are put in landfills, but should be treated as hazardous waste Valuable trace minerals can be recovered – the 2010 Olympic medals were made from e-waste!

172. Before disposing of hazardous waste Hazardous waste used to be discarded without special treatment People did not know it was harmful to human health -They assumed the substances would disappear or be diluted Since the 1980s, cities have designated sites or collection days to gather household hazardous waste

173. RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) = states must manage hazardous waste Large generators of hazardous waste must obtain permits -Materials must be tracked “from cradle to grave” -Intended to prevent illegal dumping

174. Illegal dumping of hazardous waste Hazardous waste disposal is costly -It results in illegal and anonymous dumping Illegal dumping creates health risks -Along with financial headaches for dealing with it Industrial nations illegally dump in developing nations -The Basel Convention, an international treaty, should prevent dumping, but it still happens High costs also encourage companies to invest in reducing their hazardous waste -Incineration, bacterial and plant decomposition, etc.

175. Dealing with Hazardous Waste We can produce less hazardous waste and recycle, reuse, detoxify, burn, and bury what we continue to produce. -In the U.S. there are only 23 commercial hazardous waste landfills.

176. Three disposal methods for hazardous waste These do not lessen the hazards of the substances -But they help keep the substance isolated from people, wildlife, and ecosystems Landfills = must have several impervious liners and leachate removal systems -Design and construction standards are stricter than for ordinary sanitary landfills -Must be located far from aquifers

177. Surface impoundments Surface impoundments = store liquid hazardous waste Shallow depressions are lined with plastic and clay The water evaporates The residue of solid hazardous waste is transported elsewhere The clay layer can crack and leak waste Rainstorms cause overflow, contaminating nearby areas

178. Deep-well injection Deep-well injection = a well is drilled deep beneath the water table -Waste is injected into it A long-term disposal method -The well is isolated from groundwater and humans However, the wells can corrode and leak waste

179. Radioactive waste is especially hazardous Radioactive waste is very dangerous and persistent The U.S. has no designated single disposal site -Waste will accumulate around the nation The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) = the first underground repository for transuranic waste from nuclear weapons development -Caverns are 655 m (2,150 ft) below ground in a huge salt formation thought to be geologically stable -WIPP became operational in 1999 and is receiving thousands of shipments of waste

180. Wasting Resources The United States produces about a third of the world’s solid waste and buries more than half of it in landfills. -About 98.5% is industrial solid waste. -The remaining 1.5% is MSW. -About 55% of U.S. MSW is dumped into landfills, 30% is recycled or composted, and 15% is burned in incinerators.

181. Contaminated sites are being cleaned up Globally, thousands of former military and industrial sites are contaminated with hazardous waste -Dealing with these messes is difficult, time consuming, and expensive Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) (1980) -Superfund is administered by the EPA -Established a federal program to clean up U.S. sites polluted with hazardous waste

182. Recycling Ch 22: 625-630

183. Reducing Solid Waste Refuse: to buy items that we really don’t need. Reduce: consume less and live a simpler and less stressful life by practicing simplicity. Reuse: rely more on items that can be used over and over. Repurpose: use something for another purpose instead of throwing it away. Recycle: paper, glass, cans, plastics…and buy items made from recycled materials.

184. Governments fight waste and litter Some government address a major source of litter and waste: plastic grocery bags -Grocery bags can take centuries to decompose -They choke and entangle wildlife and cause litter -100 billion of them are discarded each year in the U.S. Many governments have banned nonbiodegradable bags Companies maximize sales by producing short-lived goods -Increasing the longevity of goods also reduces waste

185. Reuse is a main strategy to reduce waste Items can be used again Use durable goods used instead of disposable ones Donate items to resale centers (Goodwill and the Salvation Army) Other actions include: -Rent or borrow items instead of buying them -Bring your own cup to coffee shops -Buy rechargeable batteries -Make double-sided copies -Use cloth napkins instead of paper ones

186. Composting recovers organic waste Composting = the conversion of organic waste into mulch or humus through natural decomposition -It can be used to enrich soil Home composting: -Householders place waste into composting piles, underground pits, or specially constructed containers -Heat from microbial action builds up and decomposition proceeds -Earthworms, bacteria, and other organisms convert waste into high-quality compost

187. Municipal composting programs These programs divert food and yard waste from the waste stream to central composting facilities -The resulting mulch can be used for gardens and landscaping Half of U.S. states now ban yard wastes from the municipal waste stream -Accelerating the move to composting Municipal composting reduces landfill waste -Enriches soil and encourages soil biodiversity -Makes healthier plants and more pleasing gardens -Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers

188. RECYCLING Primary (closed loop) recycling: materials are turned into new products of the same type. Secondary recycling: materials are converted into different products. -Used tires shredded and converted into rubberized road surface. -Newspapers transformed into cellulose insulation.

189. Reusing Reusing products is an important way to reduce resource use, waste, and pollution in developed countries. Reusing can be hazardous in developing countries for poor who scavenge in open dumps. -They can be exposed to toxins or infectious diseases.

190. How People Reuse Materials Children looking for materials to sell in an open dump in the Philippines.

191. Recycling consists of three steps Recycling = collecting materials that can be broken down and reprocessed to manufacture new items -Recycling diverted 61 million tons of materials away from U.S. incinerators and landfills in 2008 Step 1 = collection and processing of recyclable materials through curbside recycling or designated locations -Materials recovery facilities (MRFs) = workers and machines sort, clean, shred, and prepare items

192. The second and third steps of recycling Step 2 = using recyclables to produce new goods -Many products use recycled materials Step 3 = consumers buy goods made from recycled materials -Must occur if recycling is to function -As markets expand, prices will fall

193. Recycling has grown rapidly and can expand The growth of recycling is “One of the best environmental success stories ….” U.S. recycling rates vary -Depending on the product and state Greenhouse gas emissions equal to 10 billion gallons of gas are prevented each year The U.S. recycles 24.4% of its waste stream

194. Growth in recycling results from: Municipalities’ desire to reduce waste The public’s satisfaction in recycling Recycling may not be profitable -It is expensive to collect, sort, and process materials -Plus, the more material that is recycled, the lower the price But market forces do not take into account the health and environmental effects of not recycling -There are enormous energy and material savings

195. We can recycle materials from landfills Businesses are weighing the benefits of salvaging materials in landfills that can be recycled -Metals (steel, copper) -Organic waste for compost -Harvesting methane leaking from open dumps in Asia and Africa These approaches work when market prices are high -But costs and regulatory requirements have made investing in landfill mining risky

196. Financial incentives can address waste “Pay-as-you-throw” approach = uses financial incentives to influence consumer behavior -The less waste a house generates, the less it is charged for trash collection Bottle bills = consumers receive a refund for returning used bottles -They are profoundly successful -But beverage industries and groceries fight them

197. A Canadian city showcases reduction and recycling Edmonton, Alberta has one of the most advanced waste management programs -Waste: 40% is landfilled, 15% is recycled, 45% is composted -90% of the people participate in curbside recycling It produces 80,000 tons/year in its composting plant Its state-of-the-art MRF handles 30,000–40,000 tons of waste annually

198. Edmonton, Alberta’s waste management Waste is dumped in the composting plant -The plant is the size of eight football fields Each year the plant produces: -80,000 tons of compost -Gas to power 4,600 home -Thousands of dollars for the city

199. Superfund Experts identify polluted sites, take action to protect groundwater near these sites, and clean up the pollution The EPA must clean up brownfields -Lands whose reuse or development is complicated by the presence of hazardous materials Two events spurred creation of Superfund legislation -In Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York, in 1978– 1980, families were evacuated after buried chemicals rose to the surface -Times Beach, Missouri, was evacuated after contamination with dioxin from oil sprayed on roads

200. Superfund Intended as a solution to those previously contaminated sites with no-one to pay Two levels -Emergency response -immediate threat to human health or environment -Long term remediation -if Hazard Ranking System (HRS) shows a score over 27.5, it is added to the National Priorities List (NPL) for Superfund cleanup -1300 sites on NPL in 1990, more to come 200

201. The Superfund process Once a Superfund site is identified, EPA scientists note: -How close the site is to human habitation -If wastes are currently confined or likely to spread -If the site threatens drinking water supplies Harmful sites are placed on the National Priority List -They are ranked by their level of risk to human health -Cleanup goes on a site-by-site basis as funds are available The EPA must hold public hearings to inform area residents of its findings and to receive feedback

202. In 1920, an area in the city of Niagara Falls, New York became a municipal and industrial dump site. From 1942 to 1953, Hooker Chemical dumped about 21,000 tons of ‘toxic chemicals” at the site. Case Study: Love Canal

203. In 1953 the landfill was covered with layers of dirt. The Niagara Falls Board of Education bought the site from Hooker Chemical. As the city started to grow into the area, the 99 th Street Elementary School was built over the landfill, and homes were built around the site. -In 1978 the neighborhood included about 800 homes, 240 low-income apartments, and the 99 th 203 Case Study: Love Canal

204. From the late 1950s into the 1970s, residents reported foul odors and complained that “substances” were seeping into their basements, yards, and the school playground. The city assisted by covering up the seeping “substances.” Tests found high levels of PCB’s in storm sewers and toxic chemicals in wells.

205. Environmental Damages  Reports suggested that there was an unusually high rate of birth defects and miscarriages among Love Canal families.  In 1980 the EPA announced that chromosome damage had been found in 11 out of 36 residents tested in the area.  There has not been conclusive proof of a link between Love Canal and any illness.  The health of residents of the Love Canal area is being monitored in a number of ongoing studies.

206. Perspective Years ago, people were less aware of how dumping chemical wastes might affect public health and the environment On thousands of properties where such practices were intensive or continuous, the result was uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites, such as abandoned warehouses and landfills - Brownfields: abandoned industrial and commercial sites that are contaminated (gas stations, junkyards, etc) - 450,000-600,000 still exist, many in poor inner cities

207. About Superfund Citizen concern over the extent of this problem led Congress to establish the Superfund Program in 1980 to locate, investigate, and clean up the worst sites nationwide The EPA administers the Superfund program in cooperation with individual states and tribal governments OBJ 24.9

208. Superfund Sites Red indicates currently on final National Priority List, yellow is proposed, green is deleted (usually meaning having been cleaned up). – October 2010 208

209. Who pays for cleanup? CERCLA operates under the polluter pays principle = charge polluting parties for cleanup However, the responsible parties often can’t be found -A trust fund was established by a federal tax on petroleum and chemical industries The fund is bankrupt and Congress has not restored it -So taxpayers now pay all costs of cleanup Fewer cleanups are being completed -1,279 sites remain, and only 341 have been cleaned up -Cleanup costs $25 million and takes 12–15 years