1. Chapter One Introduction to Pipelined Processors

2. Principle of Designing Pipeline Processors (Design Problems of Pipeline Processors)

3. Instruction Prefetch and Branch Handling The instructions in computer programs can be classified into 4 types: – Arithmetic/Load Operations (60%) – Store Type Instructions (15%) – Branch Type Instructions (5%) – Conditional Branch Type (Yes – 12% and No – 8%)

4. Instruction Prefetch and Branch Handling Arithmetic/Load Operations (60%) : – These operations require one or two operand fetches. – The execution of different operations requires a different number of pipeline cycles

5. Instruction Prefetch and Branch Handling Store Type Instructions (15%) : – It requires a memory access to store the data. Branch Type Instructions (5%) : – It corresponds to an unconditional jump.

6. Instruction Prefetch and Branch Handling Conditional Branch Type (Yes – 12% and No – 8%) : – Yes path requires the calculation of the new address – No path proceeds to next sequential instruction.

7. Instruction Prefetch and Branch Handling Arithmetic-load and store instructions do not alter the execution order of the program. Branch instructions and Interrupts cause some damaging effects on the performance of pipeline computers.

8. Handling Example – Interrupt System of Cray1

9. Cray-1 System The interrupt system is built around an exchange package. When an interrupt occurs, the Cray-1 saves 8 scalar registers, 8 address registers, program counter and monitor flags. These are packed into 16 words and swapped with a block whose address is specified by a hardware exchange address register

10. Instruction Prefetch and Branch Handling In general, the higher the percentage of branch type instructions in a program, the slower a program will run on a pipeline processor.

11. Effect of Branching on Pipeline Performance Consider a linear pipeline of 5 stages Fetch Instruction Decode Fetch Operands Execute Store Results

12. Overlapped Execution of Instruction without branching I1I1 I2I2 I3I3 I4I4 I5I5 I6I6 I7I7 I8I8

13. I5 is a branch instruction I1I1 I2I2 I3I3 I4I4 I5I5 I6I6 I7I7 I8I8

14. Estimation of the effect of branching on an n-segment instruction pipeline

15. Estimation of the effect of branching Consider an instruction cycle with n pipeline clock periods. Let – p – probability of conditional branch (20%) – q – probability that a branch is successful (60% of 20%) (12/20=0.6)

16. Estimation of the effect of branching Suppose there are m instructions Then no. of instructions of successful branches = mxpxq (mx0.2x0.6) Delay of (n-1)/n is required for each successful branch to flush pipeline.

17. Estimation of the effect of branching Thus, the total instruction cycle required for m instructions =

18. Estimation of the effect of branching As m becomes large, the average no. of instructions per instruction cycle is given as =?

19. Estimation of the effect of branching As m becomes large, the average no. of instructions per instruction cycle is given as

20. Estimation of the effect of branching When p =0, the above measure reduces to n, which is ideal. In reality, it is always less than n.

21. Solution = ?

22. Multiple Prefetch Buffers Three types of buffers can be used to match the instruction fetch rate to pipeline consumption rate 1.Sequential Buffers: for in-sequence pipelining 2.Target Buffers: instructions from a branch target (for out-of-sequence pipelining)

23. Multiple Prefetch Buffers A conditional branch cause both sequential and target to fill and based on condition one is selected and other is discarded

24. Multiple Prefetch Buffers 3.Loop Buffers – Holds sequential instructions within a loop

25. Data Buffering and Busing Structures

26. Speeding up of pipeline segments The processing speed of pipeline segments are usually unequal. Consider the example given below: S1S2S3 T1T2T3

27. Speeding up of pipeline segments If T1 = T3 = T and T2 = 3T, S2 becomes the bottleneck and we need to remove it How? One method is to subdivide the bottleneck – Two divisions possible are:

28. Speeding up of pipeline segments First Method: S1 TT2T S3 T

29. Speeding up of pipeline segments First Method: S1 TT2T S3 T

30. Speeding up of pipeline segments Second Method: S1 TTT S3 T T

31. Speeding up of pipeline segments If the bottleneck is not sub-divisible, we can duplicate S2 in parallel S1 S2 S3 T 3T T S2 3T S2 3T

32. Speeding up of pipeline segments Control and Synchronization is more complex in parallel segments

33. Data Buffering Instruction and data buffering provides a continuous flow to pipeline units Example: 4X TI ASC

34. In this system it uses a memory buffer unit (MBU) which – Supply arithmetic unit with a continuous stream of operands – Store results in memory The MBU has three double buffers X, Y and Z (one octet per buffer) – X,Y for input and Z for output

35. Example: 4X TI ASC This provides pipeline processing at high rate and alleviate mismatch bandwidth problem between memory and arithmetic pipeline

36. Busing Structures PBLM: Ideally subfunctions in pipeline should be independent, else the pipeline must be halted till dependency is removed. SOLN: An efficient internal busing structure. Example : TI ASC

37. In TI ASC, once instruction dependency is recognized, update capability is incorporated by transferring contents of Z buffer to X or Y buffer.