1. The Periodic Table organising elements into groups
Chemistry C3 Part One
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The Periodic Table organising elements into groups

2. Newlands and Mendeleev
Newlands listed the elements in order of atomic weights. He spotted repeating patterns (octaves) in behaviour
Mendeleev arranged elements into groups and periods to fit repeating patterns. He left gaps for undiscovered elements.

3. Modern Periodic Tables
Modern Periodic Tables arrange elements by increasing atomic number.
The number of electrons in the highest energy level (outermost shell) indicates the group number of the element.

4. Group 1 - The Alkali Metals
Elements in Group 1 (The Alkali Metals) are soft, low density metals.
Alkali metals react rapidly with water, forming alkalis & hydrogen.
Alkali metals form ionic compounds with non-metals.
Group 1 ions have the charge +1

5. Reactivity down the group
Group 1 elements become more reactive further down the group.
Large atoms lose electrons from their outer shells more easily because they are further from the positive nuclear charge force and shielded by more inner shells of electrons.

6. Group 7 – The Halogens
Elements in Group 7 (The Halogens) are coloured non-metals.
More reactive halogens displace less reactive halogens from solutions containing halide ions, e.g. Cl Br– → Br Cl–
Group 7 ions have a charge of –1

7. Revision PowerPoint - Big ideas Hard water
Chemistry C3 Part Two
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Hard water

8. Causes of hard water
Hard water is caused by calcium and magnesium ions dissolving when acidic rainwater flows through rocks.
Temporary hard water is caused by calcium hydrogencarbonate, can be removed by boiling the water.
Permanent hardness caused by calcium sulphate isn’t removed by boiling.

9. Softening and desalinating
Washing soda and ion-exchange resins can soften hard water.
Seawater can be desalinated by distillation which needs a lot of energy

10. Tap water treatment
Water is filtered to remove solids and sterilised with chlorine to kill microbes.
Dissolved substances are removed by specialised filters or by ion exchange.

11. Chemical energy and calorimetry experiments
Chemistry C3 Part Three
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Chemical energy and calorimetry experiments

12. Calorimetry
In calorimetry the energy released from a chemical reaction is transferred to water.
The energy transferred, E = m x c x ∆T

13. Calorimetry
Energy level diagrams show the change in chemical energy as reactants change into products.
Energy is released when new chemical bonds form.
Energy is required to break chemical bonds.

14. Chemical energy diagrams
In an exothermic reaction chemical energy in the reactants in transformed into thermal energy
The surroundings become warmer

15. Chemical energy diagrams
In an endothermic reaction thermal energy is taken in from the surroundings and is stored as chemical energy in the products
The surroundings cool down

16. Activation energy
Catalysts reduce the minimum amount of energy needed to start a reaction
This is called the activation energy

17. Hydrogen fuel
Hydrogen releases energy when it reacts with oxygen in combustion or in fuel cells.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Hydrogen burns exothermically

18. Revision PowerPoint - Big ideas Chemical Analysis
Chemistry C3 Part Four
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Chemical Analysis

19. Flame tests 1
Colours used in flame tests are used to identify Group 1 ions.
Each salt produces a characteristic flame colour:
Lithium (Li+) – magenta
Sodium (Na+) – golden yellow
Potassium (K+) – lilac

20. Flame tests 2 Other metal ions also produce coloured flames.
Calcium (Ca2+) – brick red
Barium (Ba2+) – apple green
Copper (Cu2+) - green with blue flashes

21. Precipitation reactions
Precipitation reactions are used to identify other metal ions. Test the solutions of the salts with sodium hydroxide solution. A coloured precipitate of a metal hydroxide forms.
light blue jelly ppt. copper (II) ions, Cu2+
dirty green jelly ppt. iron (II) ions, Fe2+
rusty red- brown jelly ppt. iron (III) ions, Fe3+

22. White hydroxide precipitates?
When you test solutions of the salts with sodium hydroxide solution, sometimes the precipitate is white. This is how to distinguish between magnesium, calcium and aluminium ions …
Add extra (excess) sodium hydroxide solution to the white precipitate.
The precipitate does not dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide = calcium or magnesium ions
The precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide = aluminium ions

23. Sulphate test
Energy level diagrams show the change in chemical energy as reactants change into products.
Energy is released when new chemical bonds form.
Energy is required to break chemical bonds.

24. Carbonate test
Energy level diagrams show the change in chemical energy as reactants change into products.
Energy is released when new chemical bonds form.
Energy is required to break chemical bonds.

25. Chloride bromide iodide test
Test the solution of the salt with silver nitrate solution, acidified by nitric acid
silver iodide ppt. is yellow
silver bromide ppt. is cream
silver chloride ppt. is white

26. Acid-alkali titrations volumetric analysis of acids & alkalis
Titrations Revision
Chemistry C3 Part Five
Bases are the chemical opposites of acids. Alkalis are bases that are soluble in water.
A = Acid
B = Base (alkali)
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Acid-alkali titrations volumetric analysis of acids & alkalis

27. Apparatus
Titrations involve reactions between solutions of acids and solutions of alkalis
Alkalis are delivered using pipettes
Acids are delivered using burettes

28. Solution concentration
The concentration of a solution depends on the mass of the solute dissolved in a certain volume of water. Mass is measure in grams, volumes in dm3 Concentration = Mass of solute, in g in g/dm3 Volume of solution, in dm3

29. Molar concentration
The concentration of a solution depends on the number of moles of the solute dissolved in a one decimetre cubed of solution.
Concentration, c = m ÷ Mr in mol/dm V
m = mass of solute in grams Mr = molar mass of the solute in g/mol V = volume of solution in dm3

30. How many moles are delivered?
The number of moles, nA, of acid delivered during the titration depends upon:
the volume of acid, VA added to the flask
the molar concentration cA of the solution added to the flask nA = cA x VA

31. Titration question HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O 1 mole 1mole 20cm3
The concentration of the acid is unknown
25cm3
0.2mol/dm3
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O 1 mole mole

32. Calculation to find acid concentration
ACID, A ALKALI (Base), B nA = cA x VA nB = cB x VB 1 = cA x 20 1 = 0.25 x x cA = 0.25 x 25 cA = 0.25 x cA = 0.31 mol/dm3

33. Indicators and colour changes
Indicators switch their colours at certain pH’s
Match the type of titration with the most suitable indicator using the equivalence point pH.

34. Equivalence points and pH
This titration graph shows what happens to the pH when a strong alkali is slowly added to a strong acid. Use methyl orange.
This titration graph shows what happens to the pH when a strong alkali is slowly added to a weak acid. Best indicator = phenolphthalein

35. The Haber Process making ammonia from its elements
Chemistry C3 Part Six
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The Haber Process making ammonia from its elements

36. Ammonia NH3
Ammonia is manufactured when nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas – the Haber Process
Nitrogen - N2 is obtained from air
Hydrogen is obtained from natural gas (methane) reacting with steam CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2

37. Faster reaction
Nitrogen and hydrogen gases are mixed and passed over a catalyst of iron filings
The catalyst speeds up this slow reaction
Iron filings have a larger surface area (better than a block of iron)
A reversible exothermic reaction takes place N H2 ↔ 2NH3 + heat ∆H = –92 kJ/mole

38. Conditions for the reaction
Ammonia is being produced by the forward reaction
Ammonia is broken down by the backward reaction into nitrogen and hydrogen
Conditions are chosen to produce a reasonable yield of ammonia as quickly as possible

39. Temperature considerations 1
N H2 ↔ 2NH3 + heat ∆H = –92 kJ/mole
Raise the temperature of the reaction and molecules of gas will have more kinetic energy, move faster and collide more violently.
Violent collisions lead to old chemical bonds breaking – but be careful, ammonia molecules may decompose faster too!!
450℃ is a good compromise for this exothermic reaction – you get a reasonable yield of ammonia at a reasonable rate.

40. Temperature considerations 2
N H2 ↔ 2NH3 + heat ∆H = –92 kJ/mole
450℃ is the optimum temperature for a reasonable rate and a reasonable yield.
You can’t have a fast rate and a high yield.
Use the Goldilocks principle … not too hot … not too cold … but just right! 450℃
Fast rate
High yield
Yield of ammonia
Rate of the ammonia reaction
Low yield
450℃
Slow rate
350
450
550
Temperature in ℃

41. Pressure considerations 1
1N H2 ↔ 2NH3 + heat ∆H = –92 kJ/mole
Notice that the number of molecules on the left hand side of the equation is 3+1 = 4 and there are 2 molecules of ammonia on the right.
For all reversible reactions involving gases an increase in pressure effects the equilibrium position favouring the reaction that produces fewer molecules

42. Pressure considerations 2
1N H2 ↔ 2NH3 + heat ∆H = –92 kJ/mole
So, an increase in the pressure shifts the equilibrium to the right and increases the yield of ammonia
A high pressure of atmospheres is chosen for the Haber process
Using higher pressures adds to building costs (walls for reaction chambers will be thicker) and running costs (faster electric pumps)

43. Revision PowerPoint - Big ideas Reversible reactions
Chemistry C3 Part Seven
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Reversible reactions

44. Reversible reactions 1
These are chemical reactions which can proceed in two directions
the forward reaction changes the reactants into product e.g. NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)
the product can break down to re-create the original reactants e.g. NH4Cl (s) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g)

45. Reversible reactions 2
The equations for reversible reactions contains the two-way arrow reaction sign e.g. NH3 (g) + HCl (g) ↔ NH4Cl (s) By changing the reaction conditions we can favour either the forward reaction or the reverse reaction. Other reversible chemical reactions include the decomposition of limestone: CaCO3 (s) ↔ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

46. Dynamic chemical equilibrium 1
Ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases can react in a closed system such as the beaker in the diagram. Nothing can get in & nothing can escape. Over time the reaction reaches dynamic chemical equilibrium. The forward and backward reactions are both happening.

47. Dynamic chemical equilibrium 2
At this point of dynamic chemical equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction and the rate of the backward reaction are exactly equal. The amount of each substance remains constant and the forward and backward reactions continue to proceed. Y X
At X the heated ammonium chloride solid decomposes.
NH4Cl (s) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
At Y the cooled gases combine together to form solid ammonium chloride.
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)

48. Organic Chemistry alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters
Chemistry C3 Part Eight
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Organic Chemistry alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters

49. Alcohols CnH2n+1OH
Alcohols, such as ethanol, are a family (homologous series) of compounds containing the –OH functional group
They make excellent fuels (e.g. bioethanol is a petrol substitute)
They are used as solvents and fuels
They mix with water easily (whisky)

50. Carboxylic acids (e.g. vinegar)
Ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid. This happens when we leave wine open to the air.
Carboxylic acids have a –COOH functional group
Carboxylic acids are weak acids. Acid molecules are partially ionise. They release small quantities of H+ ions into the water, pH = 4

51. Carboxylic acids are weak acids
The vinegar = pH3 to 4 Vinegar is a weak, partially ionised acid
Hydrochloric acid = pH0 to 1 HCl is 100% dissociated into ions and it is a strong acid

52. Carboxylic acid reactions 1
Carboxylic acids react with carbonates like marble chips to form carbon dioxide. CaCO3 + 2H+ → CO2 + H2O + Ca2+
The reaction is slow because they are weak acids.

53. Carboxylic acid reactions 2
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst to form esters
Esters are sweet-smelling liquids found in perfumes and fruits like oranges and strawberries
Esters also give some fruits a special flavour

54. Esters – nice niffs & flavours
The ester ethyl ethanoate has the smell of pears
It is made when ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of an acid catalyst
Esters contain the –COO- functional group.