1. Viruses and Prokaryotes

2. What is a Virus?
A virus is a noncellular particle made up of genetic material and protein that can invade living cells
Structure
Core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid
Capsid can be DNA or RNA, but not both
Core can be several to several hundred genes

3. SO HOW BIG ARE VIRUSES??? Viruses are REALLY small.
They are much smaller than bacteria.
They can only be seen with an electron microscope.

4. Bacteriophage Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria
Head – capsid and DNA
Tail – with fibers to attach to bacteria

5. T group Most commonly studied are T group – T1, T2, T3, T4 etc...
T4 has a DNA core within a protein coat, and tail with tail fibers to attach to bacteria.

6. Viral shapes Variety of shapes Rod Tadpole
Many sided, helical or cubelike

7. VIRUS SHAPES
Round
Rod-shaped
Many sided
(icosohedral)

8. SHAPES MAY DIFFER BUT… All viruses have
1. Chromosome-like part that carries hereditary information – The Core
2. Protein coat: Protects hereditary information and provides the shape! The Capsid
Tobacco Mosaic
Virus
T4 Bacteriophage
Influenza Virus
RNA
Capsid
proteins
Head
Tail sheath
DNA
Tail fiber
RNA
Capsid
Surface
proteins
Membrane
envelope

9. ROUND VIRUSES
Herpes virus
There are two types:
Genital
oral

10. ROD-SHAPED
Tobacco mosaic virus

11. MANY SIDED
bacteriophage
E coli bacteria

12. Is this why viruses infect us?
YES!
Viruses need living organisms in order to reproduce and form more viruses!
Injecting DNA
virus

13. Virus Size
Size – 20 to 400 nanometers (one nanometer is one billionth of a meter)
Specificity – usually infect specific organisms
Cannot infect animals if it infects plants
Some can infect wider variety
Rabies – all mammals, some birds

14. VIRUSES ARE SPECIFIC IN THE CELLS THEY INFECT
Tobacco mosaic virus: only tobacco plants…not wheat or corn
Rabies: only nervous system cells of mammals
Common cold: infects cells on airway passage to lungs

15. Lytic Infection
Cause cells to lyse or burst
Infection – chance contact virus with right kind of bacterium. Virus attaches to bacterium and injects its DNA. Most times, complete virus particle does not enter.
Growth – Bacterium can’t tell difference between bacterial and viral DNA. RNA polymerase causes mRNA to be made from cell for virus. Viral DNA takes over and produces more DNA and viral proteins.
Replication – Virus uses bacterial material to make thousands of copies of the protein coat and DNA. Cell becomes filled with virus particles. (All three stages can happen with E. coli within 25 minutes!)
DNA serves as central point for virus particles to be assembled. Cells fill with virus and lyse (burst). New viruses can now infect new cells.

16. SO HOW DO VIRUSES CAUSE DISEASE?
Section 19-3
Bacteriophage protein coat
Bacteriophage DNA
Bacterial
chromosome
Bacteriophage attaches to bacterium’s cell wall
Bacteriophage enzyme lyses the
bacterium’s cell wall, releasing
new bacteriophage particles that
can attack other cells.
Lytic Cycle
Bacteriophage injects DNA into bacterium
Bacteriophage proteins and nucleic acids assemble into complete bacteriophage particles
Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage DNA
Bacteriophage protein
Bacteriophage takes over bacterium’s metabolism, causing synthesis of new bacteriophage proteins and nucleic acids

17. Retroviruses RNA viruses
When they infect a cell, they produce DNA copies of their RNA genes.
Retroviruses have their genetic information copied backwards. RNA  DNA
One retrovirus is HIV. Others cause cancer in animals and humans.
The theory is that viruses were not the first living things. They are dependent on living things to survive.

18. EUBACTERIA AND ARCHAEBACTERIA:
The two bacterial kingdoms
Bacteria on a pin head

19. Eubacteria “True” bacteria largest Kindgom of prokaryotes
generally surrounded by cell wall composed of complex carbohydrates
have a cell membrane (some have 2 cell membranes)
Some have flagella for movement
Found everywhere
Some produce disease
Some photosynthetic
some very useful – cheese is just one example

20. PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Prokaryote – what does that mean? Classification of Prokaryotes
All prokaryotes were in kingdom Monera.
Now – 2 kingdoms
Eubacteria and archaebacteria

21. Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria includes organisms that live in very harsh environments
Methanogens – live in oxygen free environments – mud, digestive tracts of animals
Extremely salty environments
Hot springs

22. Identifying Bacteria Cell Shape Rod – bacilli Sphere – cocci
Spiral – spirilla

23. Bacterial Shapes
Rod
Spiral
Round

24. Arrangement 2 cocci – diplococci long chains – streptococci
clumps, clusters – staphylococci

25. Cell Wall Chemical nature – Gram staining Hans Christian Gram
2 dyes – crystal violet (purple) and safranine (red)
bacteria either take one or the other
If only one thick layer of carbohydrate and protein molecules outside the cell membrane – picked up crystal violet – appeared purple – GRAM POSITIVE
If cell had 2nd, outer layer of lipid and carbohydrate – picked up safranine – appeared red GRAM NEGATIVE

26. Bacterial movement propelled by flagella
lash, snake, or spiral forward
no movement

27. Bacterial Respiration
Obligate aerobes – require oxygen
Obligate anaerobes – must live in absence of oxygen
example is Clostridium botulinum
Facultative anaerobes – can live with or without oxygen

28. Reproduction Some can reproduce every 20 minutes
Held in check by food and production of wastes Types:
Binary Fission
Replication of DNA and division in half
Asexual
Conjugation
Sexual – involves the exchange of genetic material
Long bridge of protein forms between the cells
Donor genetic information transferred to recipient through bridge
Recipient cell has different genes at the end than it did to begin with

29. Importance of Bacteria
Used in production of products we use every day
Yogurt
Cheese
Buttermilk
Sour cream
Pickles
Sauerkraut
Vinegar
Wine
Industry
digest petroleum
remove wastes and poisons from water
synthesizing drugs – through genetic engineering

30. Symbiotic Relationships (mutuallism)
E. coli in humans – help us digest food – make vitamins we can’t, we give them a home, food, and transportation
Bacteria in the intestines of cattle allow them to break down cellulose (in grass and hay)

31. Bacteria in the Environment
Bacteria are like the stage hands that allow the show to go on without being seen (or always given the credit)
Bacteria recycle and decompose dead material
Saprophytes – organisms that use the complex molecules of a once living organism as their food source

32. Sewage decomposition
Sewage treatment – bacteria is added directly to the raw sewage
How does a septic tank work?

33. Nitrogen Fixation
All organisms are TOTALLY dependent on monerans for Nitrogen
All Plants need nitrogen to make amino acids (-NH2)
Because animals eat plants, they get their proteins from plants
What percentage of the air is Nitrogen?
Plants, and most other organisms cannot use this directly
Need Nitrogen to be “FIXED” chemically as ammonia

34. Nitrogen Fixation
Scientists can make synthetic nitrogen containing fertilizers by mixing Nitrogen and Hydrogen gases, heating to 500 degrees C and compressing it to 300 X normal atmospheric pressure – dangerous, expensive, time consuming
Many cyanobacteria can take nitrogen from the air and convert it to a useable form – this is called Nitrogen Fixation
Bacteria are the only organisms that can do this.
Some plants have a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria
soybean – Rhizobium grows in nodules around roots

35. Diseases caused by Viruses and Monerans
only a small number of viruses and bacteria can cause disease
Pathogens – organisms that cause disease
All viruses infect living cells
Disease occurs when infection causes damage to the cells

36. Viruses and Disease Examples are: Small Pox Polio Measles AIDS Mumps
Influenza
Yellow Fever
Rabies
Common Cold
Ebola etc…

37. Vaccine The body’s own defenses must be used
Vaccine – dead or weakened viruses that stimulate the bodies defense system
Symptoms can be treated sometimes, but once someone is infected by a virus, there is not much science can do

38. Bacteria and Disease Bacterial diseases include: Diptheria TB Typhoid
Tetnus
Hansen disease
syphilis
cholera
bubonic plague
Flesh Eating Bacteria

39. 2 ways bacteria cause disease
Damage cells and tissues of infected organisms directly by breaking down cells
Releasing toxins (poisons)
Many bacteria can live without a host organism (on a petri dish)
Rickettsiae cannot live outside a host cell. They have leaky cell walls
Rickettsiae cause Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, typhus, and Legionnaire’s disease

40. Measures to fight bacterial infection include:
Antibiotics – drugs and natural compounds that attack and destroy bacteria in the body
NOT Effective against viruses