1. Learning movement skills

2. learning Experience gives us knowledge, which in turn influences the way we behave.Experience gives us knowledge, which in turn influences the way we behave.

3. Learning

4. Learning motor skills Practice and rehearsalPractice and rehearsal Trial and errorTrial and error Observing others and then copying themObserving others and then copying them

5. Practice and rehearsal We make associations or links between what we see and hear (stimuli) and what we can do (response) by practising or rehearsing actions.We make associations or links between what we see and hear (stimuli) and what we can do (response) by practising or rehearsing actions. When learning motor skills for physical activities we practise repetitive drills that encourage movements to become almost automatic. When learning motor skills for physical activities we practise repetitive drills that encourage movements to become almost automatic. The responses of the learner become conditioned when associated with a particular stimulus.The responses of the learner become conditioned when associated with a particular stimulus. This ‘conditioning’ is more likely to succeed if there is a reward. This is often called positive reinforcement.This ‘conditioning’ is more likely to succeed if there is a reward. This is often called positive reinforcement.

6. Positive reinforcement Name given to the use of reward to encourage behaviour to be repeated and to make learning more likely. The desire to receive more reward causes the behaviour to be repeated. Positive reinforcement in the teaching and learning of motor skills can be in a number of forms such as praise from the teacher when the learner makes a required response. There is wide use of merit badges when certain skills or levels of performance are attained.Name given to the use of reward to encourage behaviour to be repeated and to make learning more likely. The desire to receive more reward causes the behaviour to be repeated. Positive reinforcement in the teaching and learning of motor skills can be in a number of forms such as praise from the teacher when the learner makes a required response. There is wide use of merit badges when certain skills or levels of performance are attained.

7. Practice and rehearsal A possible problem with the ‘drill’ style of teaching motor skills is that the participant does not gain an understanding of why he or she is doing something. This lack of understanding can limit the learning and development of more complex skills.A possible problem with the ‘drill’ style of teaching motor skills is that the participant does not gain an understanding of why he or she is doing something. This lack of understanding can limit the learning and development of more complex skills.

8. Trial and error learning of motor skills Sometimes called operant conditioning, involves the shaping of behaviour through the use of reinforcement.Sometimes called operant conditioning, involves the shaping of behaviour through the use of reinforcement. If a reward is given when a certain behaviour takes place then learning is much faster (complete reinforcement).If a reward is given when a certain behaviour takes place then learning is much faster (complete reinforcement). If a reward is given after a number of correct responses then learning takes longer but lasts longer (partial reinforcement).If a reward is given after a number of correct responses then learning takes longer but lasts longer (partial reinforcement).

9. Trial and error learning of motor skills Trial and error is widely used in learning motor skills.Trial and error is widely used in learning motor skills. Rewards are used extensively in skills teaching because they reinforce the required behaviourRewards are used extensively in skills teaching because they reinforce the required behaviour

10. Trial and error learning of motor skills Some argue that punishment is very effective in modifying behaviour.Some argue that punishment is very effective in modifying behaviour. Can also have detrimental side effects such as anxiety, lack of motivation and depression.Can also have detrimental side effects such as anxiety, lack of motivation and depression. Some argue that punishment merely suppresses a response and as soon as the punishment ceases the undesired response recurs.Some argue that punishment merely suppresses a response and as soon as the punishment ceases the undesired response recurs. It is likely that a combination of reinforcement and punishment is effective with human behaviour.It is likely that a combination of reinforcement and punishment is effective with human behaviour.

11. Copying others – observational learning Learning takes place through the observation and copying or imitation (modelling) of others (role model).Learning takes place through the observation and copying or imitation (modelling) of others (role model).

12. Copying others – observational learning With observational learning, responses are spontaneous and often there is no intention on the model’s part to be teaching any type of behaviour.With observational learning, responses are spontaneous and often there is no intention on the model’s part to be teaching any type of behaviour. Behaviour is more likely to be copied (and reinforced) if the consequences of the behaviour both by the model and the observer are desirableBehaviour is more likely to be copied (and reinforced) if the consequences of the behaviour both by the model and the observer are desirable Observational learning is not just about imitation. It also involves learning about morals, values and patterns of social behaviourObservational learning is not just about imitation. It also involves learning about morals, values and patterns of social behaviour

13. Conclusions from studies about copying behaviour to learn motor skills Appropriate behaviour is more likely to be copied. (e.g. aggressive male models are more likely to be copied than aggressive female models).Appropriate behaviour is more likely to be copied. (e.g. aggressive male models are more likely to be copied than aggressive female models). Boys are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour because through influences such as media or friends they see aggressive behaviour as appropriate for them.Boys are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour because through influences such as media or friends they see aggressive behaviour as appropriate for them. Role models whose behaviour is reinforced in some way by significant others are likely to be copied.Role models whose behaviour is reinforced in some way by significant others are likely to be copied. More powerful role models are more likely to be imitated.More powerful role models are more likely to be imitated. If a role model’s behaviour is consistent, it is more likely to be copiedIf a role model’s behaviour is consistent, it is more likely to be copied

14. Role models Social learning through observation and imitation is very relevant to learning motor skills in physical activities.Social learning through observation and imitation is very relevant to learning motor skills in physical activities. Role models can influence the views and behaviour of others (especially children)Role models can influence the views and behaviour of others (especially children) Top sports people are enthusiastically watched and copied by young viewers.Top sports people are enthusiastically watched and copied by young viewers. Their behaviour is seen as acceptable and preferable to others.Their behaviour is seen as acceptable and preferable to others.

15. Demonstration Is particularly important in the process of teaching skillsIs particularly important in the process of teaching skills Imitation of the demonstration will depend on the observers attention, visualisation, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.Imitation of the demonstration will depend on the observers attention, visualisation, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

16. Paying attention To be able to imitate or copy a demonstration the performer must pay attention and focus on important movements or cues.To be able to imitate or copy a demonstration the performer must pay attention and focus on important movements or cues. The attractiveness, status and competence will influence the amount of attention they are paidThe attractiveness, status and competence will influence the amount of attention they are paid The personal characteristics of the observer and the incentives are also important influences.The personal characteristics of the observer and the incentives are also important influences. If there are problems in copying the learned behaviour it is often because attention has been distracted or interfered with at the time of watching the role model.If there are problems in copying the learned behaviour it is often because attention has been distracted or interfered with at the time of watching the role model.

17. Recording a visual image The observer (learner) must be able to remember the model that is presentedThe observer (learner) must be able to remember the model that is presented He/she needs to create a mental picture (or visual image) of the process.He/she needs to create a mental picture (or visual image) of the process. Mental rehearsal can improve retention of this mental imageMental rehearsal can improve retention of this mental image

18. Motor reproduction The observer must be physically able to imitate the skill being observedThe observer must be physically able to imitate the skill being observed Trials - feedback - muscular development are all also importantTrials - feedback - muscular development are all also important

19. Motivation We copy the skills performed by others because we are motivated to achieve success and because of our drive to be accepted by others.We copy the skills performed by others because we are motivated to achieve success and because of our drive to be accepted by others. External reinforcement will increase motivation because the perceived consequences will be desirableExternal reinforcement will increase motivation because the perceived consequences will be desirable