1. Learning By Observation Module 20
Online link
Link to an essay by Ramachandran on the importance of mirror neurons.
Module

2. Learning by Observation Overview
Bandura’s Experiments
Applications of Observational Learning
Module

3. Learning by Observation
Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.
Preview Question 12: What is observational learning?
After seeing her parents give her brother a dollar for cleaning his room, Sarah begins to clean her own room. According to social-learning theorists, Sarah’s behavior is an example of which of the following? (AP04)
(A) Classical conditioning
(B) Spontaneous recovery
(C) Stimulus generalization
(D) Discrimination training
(E) Observational learning
© Herb Terrace
©Herb Terrace
Module

4. Observational learning occurs in both humans and animals.
For example, the English titmouse has learned how to break into containers to swipe cream from its human neighbors and this behavior has been passed across generations through observational learning.
In a similar vein, children acquire a diverse array of responses from role models.
Dogs catch contagious yawns just like people, baboons and chimps, which can be used as a measure of empathy. But this is a behavior they learn after they emerge from youngest puppyhood, a new study says. Like people, young dogs show a developmental trend in their likelihood of catching yawns. This is the first time anyone has studied young-organism yawning in a species other than people.
p. 244
Module

5. Mirror Neurons
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Neurons that shaped civilization at TED 7:44
Left, someone in pain
Right, someone watching someone in pain…possibly source of empathy
Mirror Neurons – Patient in brain surgery, conscious, surgeon finds neuron active when his hand poked. same neuron, active when he sees someone else's hand poled. Neuron does not appear to know the difference between self and other. Buddhist and Indian mystics say there is no difference between self and other…Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The Tell Tale Brain pg. 6
Frontal lobe damage patients mimic gestures uncontrollably…Echopraxia. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The Tell Tale Brain pg. 125
A baby a few hours old will stick out tongue if mother does. Mirror neurons appear to be hardwired. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The Tell Tale Brain pg. 127
Neurons that shaped civilization on TED
Neuroscientist Vilayanur Ramachandran outlines the fascinating functions of mirror neurons. Only recently discovered, these neurons allow us to learn complex social behaviors, some of which formed the foundations of human civilization as we know it.
Reprinted with permission from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Subiaul et al., Science 305: (2004)
© 2004 AAAS.
Module

6. Children see, children do.
Imitation Onset
Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart.
Children see, children do.
Child Development, Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.
Module

7. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University
Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.
Active Psych 2/3
#14 Bandura and social learning
Good clips
Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University
Module

8. Bandura Methodology
You do not have to write this methodology, it will become clear when you see the clips of the research.
Module

9. Albert Bandura: Hypothesis
The experiments of Pavlov and Skinner clearly proved that humans can be conditioned to have certain responses and behaviors. This conditioning represents just one type of learning.
Albert Bandura believed that we also learn from observing and imitating others and that, in fact, learning can be much easier when done in this social context. He then hypothesized that children could learn aggressive behavior by observing adults behaving aggressively. His key theories were published in the early 1960s. =
Believed we learn through observation and imitation
Hypothesized that children would imitate aggressive behavior they observed
Module

10. Bandura’s Methodology
Bandura had preschool children watch films in which adults punched inflatable dolls, called Bobo dolls, while yelling such things as, “Pow—right in the nose!”
The children were divided into three groups. Each group saw the same film but with a different ending. The three endings could be categorized as follows:
aggression-rewarded: the adult was praised and received treats at the end of the film; he was rewarded for his aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll
aggression-punished: the adult was punished by being called a bully, swatted, and made to cower
no consequences: the adult was neither rewarded nor punished for his aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll
Children watched films of adults beating Bobo dolls
Three groups: aggression-rewarded, aggression-punished, no consequences
Children went into rooms with toys
Module

11. EFFECT OF OBSERVED CONSEQUENCE ON IMITATIVE BEHAVIOR
Bandura’s Results
EFFECT OF OBSERVED CONSEQUENCE ON IMITATIVE BEHAVIOR
Immediately after watching this film, the children in all groups were taken into a room with toys but told not to play with the toys. They were then taken into another room with a Bobo doll and other toys, much as they’d seen in the film. By this time, children were generally frustrated that they hadn’t been able to play with any of the toys.
Researchers observed their behavior and found that the children who had watched the aggression-rewarded and the no consequences films were equally likely to behave aggressively toward the Bobo doll. Children who had watched the aggression-punished film, however, imitated the adults in their aggression significantly fewer times than children in the other two groups.
Children in the aggression-punished group expressed the fewest aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo dolls
Children in the other two groups expressed an equal number of aggressive behaviors and were more aggressive than children in the aggression-punished group
Module

12. Bandura’s Experiment Cont.+ =
The experiment continued when an adult researcher told the children that they’d be rewarded with stickers and juice if they could imitate the adult they had seen in the film. After this promise, the children in all three groups exhibited an equal number of aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo dolls. They had apparently learned the aggressive adult’s behaviors but, in the case of the aggression-punished group, had suppressed imitation for fear of punishment.
Viewing aggressive behavior
Rewards for imitation
Aggressive behavior
Children then promised rewards for imitating the adult in the film
Now, all three groups were equally aggressive
Children had learned the aggressive behavior from the film, but those who saw the adults being punished were less likely to act aggressively
Module

13. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Bandura’s results led him to develop his social learning theory, which states that we learn by observation and imitation.
Bandura’s theory has numerous implications. For example, subsequent research has indicated that children imitate the things they see on television and in movies, including acts of aggression and violence. Research indicates that children who have watched a violent TV program or movie might not imitate the actual behavior they observed, such as killing or beating, but they may be more likely to express generally aggressive behaviors such as hitting a sibling. On the other hand, children imitate good or neutral behavior as well, such as performing nice deeds for other people or assembling a puzzle.
Think about the ways in which you, either now or at a younger age, have learned through observation and imitation.
Relates to effects of violence and other images on TV and in the movies
Children imitate good and neutral behaviors as well as bad ones
Module

14. This series of photographs shows children observing and modeling aggressive behavior.
Link
Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment 5:03
Module

15. Applications of Observational Learning
Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.
From The Better Angels of Our Nature by Steven Pinker
A recent article in the Archives of Diseases of Childhood measured the rates of violence in different genres of children's entertainment. The television programs had 4.8 violent scenes per hour; the nursery rhymes had 52.2.
Some samples from same
Two unsupervised children are allowed to go on a dangerous errand; Jack sustains a head injury that could leave him with brain damage, while Jill's condition is unknown. A drifter confesses that he threw an old man down the stairs. Georgie Porgie sexually harasses underage girls, leaving them with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Humpty Dumpty remains in critical condition after a crippling accident. A negligent mother leaves a baby unattended on a treetop, with disastrous results. A blackbird swoops down on a domestic employee hanging up laundry and maliciously wounds her nose. Three vision-impaired mice are mutilated with a carving knife. And here comes a candle to light you to bed; here comes a chopper to chop off your head!
Module

16. Positive Observational Learning
Prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
Research shows that people who rescued Jews during the holocaust & civil rights activists had at least one parent that modeled strong moral or humanitarian concern (London 1970)
Exposed to a hypocrite, children imitate hypocrisy
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Module

17. Television and Observational Learning
Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression.
By the time you are 75, you will have watched 9 years of TV (Gallup 2002)
During late 20th cent. The average child viewed 8000 murders, 100,000 other acts of violence before finishing elementary school (Huston 1992) Add videos and cable and the numbers skyrocket.
Die hard 1 had 264 deaths
74% of TV violence is unpunished, 58% did not show victim’s pain, ½ involved an attractive perpetrator
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images
Module

18. Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Interested in cutting murder rates in half?
Homicide rates doubled from , coinciding with the introduction of TV . Regions late with the introduction of tv had homicide rates increase correspondingly later (US, Canada, South Africa)
Elementary school children with high exposure to media violence involved in more fights themselves.
Correlation no causation
Other factors that cause lots of TV may be to blame? Neglect, poverty…
Tested this by assigning groups to watch violent or non-violence. Violent TV leads to aggressive behavior, especially attractive people who commit seemingly justified violence that is unpunished, caused no visible pain or harm.
The terms "modeling" and "imitation" are most closely associated with which of the following? (AP94)
(A) Classical conditioning
(B) Gestalt theory
(C) Hypothesis testing
(D) Operant conditioning
(E) Social learning theory
96. Gender differences most often have been found in which of the following?(AP12)
A. Aggression
B. Short-term memory
C. Auditory discrimination
D. Visual Acuity
E. Pattern matching
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Glassman/ The Image Works
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Module

19. Video games, a good side?
In short, players must juggle a number of tasks at once and, to succeed, they can’t drop the ball on any front. After playing Medal of Honor an hour a day for ten days, college students showed improved memory and attention abilities on a number of different tasks. Importantly, people improved even on tasks that they had not directly practiced. The better that people got at Medal of Honor, the more their attention and memory skills outside the game skyrocketed. So, parents, before you take your kids Nintendo DS away for good, you might want to think about the potential benefits of some video game play. Keep in mind, however, that these benefits occurred after only an hour of play a day. Eight hours a day, every day, will likely have diminishing returns in upping cognitive horsepower. Nonetheless, some video game play especially if the game helps you practice important cognitive skills can be good.
From Choke: What the Secrets of the Brain Reveal About Getting It Right When You Have To
The better that people got at Medal of Honor, the more their attention and memory skills outside the game skyrocketed.
Module

20. Watching cruelty fosters indifference
DiscPsy p.195
7x increase in violent play after viewing power rangers (Boyatzis 1995)
We become desensitized over time and express less sympathy for domestic violence, rape etc (Mullin 1995)
Watching cruelty fosters indifference
Module

21. EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Edition in Modules) David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad, Amy Jones w Garber edits
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2008
Module