1. Learning
Chapter 8

2. Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by his/her repeated experience in that situation, provided the behavioral change cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation or temporary states of the subject.

3. Squirt Test
CAN, dish, CAN, bridge, scale, can, fan, board, CAN, cool, three, horn, disk, CAN, can, cast, test, pen, dime, CAN, dish, van, can, card, stand, meat, pad, can, dish, set, can, tree, ice, plum, can, cost, bird, glass, can, light, can, sword, juice, can, dish, rock, smoke, grease, dish, keep, kid, tan, dice, hole, set, dish, eye, friend, wax, bill, bulb, dish, class, mine, mark, work, can, dish, can, bus, dish, phone, can, smart, first, can, crack, feet, can, tub, bowl, can, van, day, can, rake, dish, CAN, bluff, risk, CAN, salt, dish, CAN, ball, stack, CAN, rain, hat, food, can, van, disk, tree, can, cup, can, lime, CAN, dish, girl, chalk, can, dish, CAN, key, screen, ran, CAN, disk, CAN, knob, bag, tape, CAN, dish, clip, CAN, air, ban, cheese, CAN, door, can, box, dish, hair, CAN, ring, nail, CAN, boat, cap, dish, CAN, crane, wheel, fire, CAN, dish, king, cape, apple, CAN, dog, blue, can, dish, CAN, take, call, brick, pair, CAN, spin, chair, CAN, camp.
Classroom Exercise: Classical Conditioning with a Watergun
Joel I. Shenker suggests an exercise that illustrates all of the major classical conditioning phenomena. You will need a large plastic garbage bag, a watergun or spray bottle, and a towel. Bring them to class and ask for a volunteer who does not mind being squirted in the face with water while wearing a large garbage bag.
Cut a hole in the garbage bag so it can be placed over the volunteer’s head, then have her (or him) sit in a chair facing the class. Tell the volunteer to keep her eyes closed throughout the demonstration for safety reasons. As you begin, tell yours students to watch carefully and to be ready to discuss what they observe.
Read each word in the list below loud enough for everyone to hear. Go through the list at a rate of about 2 seconds per word. Squirt the volunteer in the face only after you have read the upper case CAN, using a delay of about .5 seconds. Responses to the lowercase “can” test the volunteer’s conditioned responses to the target word.
Give the volunteer a towel and a generous thanks. Begin by simply asking your students to describe and discuss what they observed.
1. The US is the water squirted in the volunteer’s face, the UR is usually a flinch or squint. The CS is the sound of the word “can” and the CR is the flinch or squint when a word is read without an accompanying squirt. Acquisition is demonstrated as “can” by itself gradually comes to elicit a CR.
2. Stimulus generalization is evident as words that sound like can (ban, ran, cap, cast) come to produce a CR.
3. Stimulus discrimination is evident when different stimulus words elicit differences in the CRs. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound like “can.”
4. Extinction is evident when the CRs disappear after the word “can” is spoken several times without a squirt.
5. Spontaneous recovery occurs if the word “can” again produces a CR after extinction and after a long string of words that does not include the word “can.” (This occurs near the end of the exercise.)
6. Reconditioning savings is demonstrated when the word “can” and a squirt are again associated. Fewer conditioning trials are needed to elicit a reliable CR.
Shenker suggests that you may want to have students write down their observations before you begin a class discussion. Simply ask them to write down the US, UR, CS, and CR and to describe the phenomena associated with the learning they observed. In this way, students are required to do their own thinking and can refer to their written notes when you begin the full class discussion.

4. What happened
1. The US is the water squirted in the volunteer’s face, the UR is usually a flinch or squint. The CS is the sound of the word “can” and the CR is the flinch or squint when a word is read without an accompanying squirt. Acquisition is demonstrated as “can” by itself gradually comes to elicit a CR.
2. Stimulus generalization is evident as words that sound like can (ban, ran, cap, cast) come to produce a CR.
3. Stimulus discrimination is evident when different stimulus words elicit differences in the CRs. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound like “can.”
4. Extinction is evident when the CRs disappear after the word “can” is spoken several times without a squirt.
5. Spontaneous recovery occurs if the word “can” again produces a CR after extinction and after a long string of words that does not include the word “can.” (This occurs near the end of the exercise.)
6. Reconditioning savings is demonstrated when the word “can” and a squirt are again associated. Fewer conditioning trials are needed to elicit a reliable CR.

5. Stimulus-Stimulus Learning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another.

6. Classical Conditioning
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner.
Sovfoto
Ivan Pavlov ( )

7. Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
OBJECTIVE 2| Explain how an unconditioned stimulus (US)

8. Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response. Unconditioned Response (UCR): A unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, like salivation in the dog when food is in the mouth. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.

9. Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

10. Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.
OBJECTIVE 4| Summarize the processes of extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

11. Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

12. Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped.

13. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
OBJECTIVE 5| Discuss the survival value of extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination.

14. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positive-associations with alcohol.
Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

15. Operant & Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
OBJECTIVE 10| Identify the two major characteristics that distinguish classical conditioning from operant conditioning.

16. Operant & Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

17. Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.
OBJECTIVE 11| State Thorndike’s law of effect, and explain its connection to Skinner’s research on operant conditioning.
Yale University Library

18. Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations.
OBJECTIVE 12| Describe the shaping procedure, and how it can increase our understanding of what animals and babies can discriminate.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

19. Types of Reinforcers
Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.
OBJECTIVE 13| Compare positive and negative reinforcement, and give one example each of a primary reinforcer, a conditioned, an immediate, and a delayed reinforcer.
Reuters/ Corbis

20. Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers
Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

21. Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.
OBJECTIVE 14| Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of continuous and partial reinforcement schedules, and identify four schedules of partial reinforcements.

22. Ratio Schedules
Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.
Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

23. Interval Schedules
Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)
Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

24. Schedules of Reinforcement

25. An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
OBJECTIVE 15| Discuss the ways negative punishment, positive punishment, and negative reinforcement differ, and list some drawbacks of punishment as a behavior-control technique.

26. Punishment
Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects.
Results in unwanted fears.
Conveys no information to the organism.
Justifies pain to others.
Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence.
Causes aggression towards the agent.
Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another.

27. Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment).
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning

28. Latent Learning
Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

29. Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

30. Applications of Operant Conditioning
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

31. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
OBJECTIVE 19| Describe some ways to apply operant conditioning principles at school, at work and at home.
LWA-JDL/ Corbis
In School

32. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.
In Sports

33. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.
At work

34. Learning by Observation
Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.
© Herb Terrace
OBJECTIVE 21| Describe the process of observational learning, and explain the importance of the discovery of mirror neurons.
©Herb Terrace

35. Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.
OBJECTIVE 22| Describe Bandura's findings on what determines whether we will imitate a model.
Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

36. Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

37. Positive Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
OBJECTIVE 23| Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

38. Television and Observational Learning
Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression.
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

39. Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Glassman/ The Image Works
Children modeling after pro wrestlers

40. The End
What did you learn…