Society, Culture, and Sport

Society, Culture, and Sport

Topics Covered: Brief history of sport in the USA
Brief history of the Olympic Games Sport and American culture Sports sociology considers the relationship between sports and society – Sports as a microcosm of society – How culture and values influence sport – How sport influences culture and values – Sports and media, politics, economics, religion, race, gender, youth, etc. – Sports and social inequality, social mobility Sport Books Publisher

Sociological Concepts
1. Culture – the patterns, traditions, rituals, habits, values, and beliefs of a society 2. Subculture – a distinct subunit of a culture, often delimited by gender, age, race, ethnicity, class, religion, politics, sexual orientation 3. Hegemony (noun) – the tacitly accepted power and dominance of a given subculture, value, or belief Sport Books Publisher

Brief History of Sport in USA
Sport Books Publisher

By analyzing American sport history and by examining the larger role sport currently plays in people's everyday lives, we can further understand how sport has come to permeate our culture and society. Sport Books Publisher

New Beginnings (1400s to 1860) 15th and 16th century
European explorers and settlers fascinated by Native American games Example: baggataway To develop warrior’s skill First viewed by French Today known as lacrosse 17th and 18th century Hampered development due to church sentiment and wars Sport Books Publisher

New Beginnings (1400s to 1860) Late 18th and 19th century
End of American Revolution Beginning of First Industrial revolution More leisure time Sports/games develop more rapidly Mostly social elite sports Examples: golf, horse racing, target shooting Bare-knuckle fights Initially illegal; slave against slave Universally accepted end of 19th century Clip art Sport Books Publisher

The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918)
King’s College, Nova Scotia (Canada) Montreal Quebec (Canada) New England States (USA) Ice Hockey Played on a frozen pond with a wooden puck and a stick Sport Books Publisher

Baseball Origin of “bat and ball” or “town ball”: Abner Doubleday, Cooperstown NY(1839) Western MA (late 1700s) Small towns in Eastern NY and New England; (late 1700s) Origin of modern baseball: Alexander Cartwright; Knickerbockers Base Ball Club; 1845 Spread throughout the country during the Civil War years Played by all Sport Books Publisher

Football Originally the “Boston game” First game – 1869 Soccer rules Rugby rules adopted in 1867 11-man game (versus 15) Adopted several years later Allowed for more control and strategy Walter Camp – “father of modern football” Clip art Sport Books Publisher

Basketball Truly North American in origin Developed by Dr. James Naismith visiting YMCA Training School (now Springfield College) in MA in 1890 Soccer ball and peach baskets Developed as a form of recreation to pass away cold New England winters Spread by YMCA Training School graduates to urban areas James Naismith Sport Books Publisher

Other activities Cycling Bicycle craze due to overpopulation and transportation issues Development of competitive cycling Car racing Invention of automobile Popular pastime for those who could afford it Modern Olympic Games Pierre de Coubertin Modeled after ancient Olympics Clip art Sport Books Publisher

Post-World War I Era (1919 to present)
Post WWI and Great Depression “Golden age” of sport American sports icons help nation put painful WWI memories behind Beginning of Professional leagues The American Professional Football League (1920) The Negro League of Baseball Sport seen as form of entertainment that generates revenue Athletes paid and traded Football moved to larger urban areas Olympics gained momentum Post WWII Economic boom accompanied by emergence of sport, recreation, and physical activity as important part of our society Lou Gehrig Sport Books Publisher

Emergence of Mass Media Invention of radio Invention of TV (1950s and 1960s) Brought sport icons to people’s homes Sport perfect medium for TV Gathered families Sports popularity in mass media and with it participation in sports grows Baseball Tennis – Billie Jean King Sports on TV influence children and adults Billie Jean King Sport Books Publisher

Sport for All Amendment XIV – Equal access for all races Brown v. Board of Education (1954) Against doctrine of “separate but equal”/Plessy v. Ferguson (1986) Title IX – Equal opportunity and funding regardless of sex Established the Education Amendments of 1972 Produced a change in attitude toward female athletes and sports Sport Books Publisher

Brief History of Olympic Games

SUMMER IV London, 1908 Originally awarded to Rome
Athletes walked in by nation for the first time Ray Ewry I Athens, 1896 First modern Olympics Developed by Baron Pierre de Coubertin IOC Vision: to promote the idea of true armature athletic competition James Connolly II Paris, 1900 First unofficial appearance of women (golf and tennis) In conjunction with World's Fair Ray Ewry, Myer Pristein III St. Louis, 1904 Also coincided with World’s Fair 4½ months duration First to utilize medal system George Eyser V Stockholm, 1912 Electronic devices, public address systems, and photo finishes used First to have representation from all five continents Jim Thorpe SUMMER Sport Books Publisher

SUMMER WWI 1914-1918 VI Berlin, 1916 Cancelled due to WWI
Still holds the distinction of the Games of VI Olympiad VII Antwerp, 1920 Olympic flag Athlete’s Oath Release of dove as a symbol of peace Ethelda Bleibtrey VIII Paris, 1924 First Olympic village Motto “Citius, Altius, Fortius” Raising of 3 flags in the closing ceremony Johnny Weissmuller IX Amsterdam, 1928 Ignition of Olympic flame during opening ceremonies First time women were recognized as competitors in “athletic” events (e.g., track and field) Elizabeth Robinson X Los Angeles, 1932 Began the tradition of honoring victors with their national anthem Babe Didrikson SUMMER Sport Books Publisher

SUMMER WWII 1939-1945 XII Helsinki, 1940 Cancelled due to WWII WWII
XIII London, 1944 Cancelled due to WWII XIV London, 1948 Reawarded to London First to be seen on home TV’s Bob Mathias, Robert Richards XI Berlin, 1936 First TV broadcast Torch relay introduced “the Hitler Olympics”: Hitler’s means of propaganda Jesse Owens embarrassed Hitler by winning 4 gold medals Marjorie Gestring XV Helsinki, 1952 First time showing of USSR, Israel, and Federal Republic of Germany Setting stage for USSR v. USA rivalry Harrison Dilard, Patricia McCormick SUMMER Sport Books Publisher

XX Munich, 1972 September 5, 1972 Palestinian terrorists (Black September) took hostage and killed 11 Israeli athletes The first Judge’s Oath was recited Mark Spitz XVI Melbourne, 1956 First city in the southern hemisphere to host Athletes walk together v. by nation for the closing ceremonies Wilma Rudolph, Al Oerter XVII Rome, 1960 Played an anthem that was played back at first modern Olympics in Athens; became the official anthem Dominated by USSR Wilma Rudolph, Cassius Clay XVIII Tokyo, 1964 First time the Games were hosted by an Asian nation Volleyball – first women’s team sport Billy Mills, Joe Frazier XIX Mexico City, 1968 Altitude benefited short distance and disadvantaged long distance events Long jump world record made that remained unbroken for 22 years (Bob Beamon) Tommie Smith and John Carlos protest against racial segregation in USA SUMMER Sport Books Publisher

XXV Barcelona, 1992 First time since Munich to be held without a boycott South Africa was allowed to participate following abolishment of apartheid W and E Germany together Russian states separate Basketball Dream Team, Gail Devers XXIII Los Angeles, 1984 In response to Moscow Olympics Soviets and other nations boycott Huge success; >$200 million profit Carl Lewis, Joan Benoit XXI Montreal, 1976 Allegations of suspected drug use were at the forefront of media coverage First ever perfect score in gymnastics earned by Nadia Comaneci of Romania Edwin Moses, Greg Louganis XXII Moscow, 1980 A U.S. lead boycott by Western nations protesting the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan Soviet team dominated XXIV Seoul, 1988 South Korean government refused to co-host with the North Korea North Korea and Cuba boycott in response Florence Griffith-Joyner, Matt Biondi SUMMER Sport Books Publisher

SUMMER XXVI Atlanta, 1996 A bomb detonated in Centennial Olympic Park
2 people killed; 100 injured Carl Lewis, Michael Johnson XXVII Sydney, 2000 First time since Korean War, North and South played together Women took part in weightlifting and decathlon Marion Jones, Michael Johnson XXVII Athens, 2004 Return home after more than a century Most expensive in history Post-September 11; Extra degree of security No incident Michael Phelps SUMMER Sport Books Publisher

WINTER WWII 1939-1945 1940& 1944 Cancelled due to WWI
Unlike Summer Olympics did not keep their numerical designations I Chamonix, 1924 Originally an “International Winter Sports Week” Officially recognized as winter Olympics in 1926 Charles Jewtraw II St. Moritz, 1928 Sonja Henie, future Hollywood film star, earns first three gold medals U.S. wins two gold medals in bobsled and skeleton tracks III Lake Placid, 1932 First in the Americas Sled dog racing appears as a demonstration sport Eddie Eagen the only athlete ever to win gold in both Summer and Winter Olympics IV Garmisch-Partenkirchen, 1936 First time for Alpine events Austrian and Swiss skier boycotted to protest exclusion of ski instructors Leo Freisinger WINTER Sport Books Publisher

WINTER V St. Moritz, 1948 Return after 20 years to same place
Germany and Japan not invited Gretchen Fraser, Dick Burton VI Oslo, 1952 Nordic ski events open to women for the first time Dick button VII Cortina d’Ampezzo, 1956 First appearance by the USSR First Athlete’s Oath taken by a woman Last outdoor figure skating events Tenley Albright VIII Squaw Valley, 1960 First use of instant replay Biathlon made its debut Women speedskating Carol Heiss, David Jenkins IX Innsbruck, 1964 Endangered due to lack of snow Austrian Army brought snow from the surrounding mountaintops USSR dominated Terry McDermott WINTER Sport Books Publisher

WINTER X Grenoble, 1968 Women underwent sex tests
The East German Women’s luge team disqualified for heating the runners First broadcast in color TV Peggy Fleming XI Sapporo, 1972 First outside of Europe or U.S. Karl Schranz banned for receiving payments from ski manufacturer Soviet hockey players, paid by government, allowed Canadian hockey boycott 7 of 8 USA medals won by women XII Innsbruck, 1976 Originally awarded to Denver but were removed due to funding issues Ice dancing entered as Olympic event Dorothy Hamill, Peter Mueller, Sheila Young XIII Lake Placid, 1980 Second time in same place Artificial snow U.S. hockey team defeated USSR, the “Miracle on Ice” Eric Heiden XIV Sarajevo, 1984 20-km Nordic event for women New IOC president Phil and Steve Mahre, Scott Hamilton WINTER Sport Books Publisher

WINTER XV Calgary, 1988 First in Canada Spread out over three weekend
Speedskating under a covered venue Added super G and Alpine combined Brian Boitano, Bonnie Blair XVI Albertville, 1992 Last Winter Games to be held in the same year as the Summer Games Women’s biathlon Added freestyle skiing and short-track speedskating Bonnie Blair, Kristi Yamaguchi, Nancy Kerrigan XVII Lillehammer, 1994 One of the greatest ever Dan Jansen, Nancy Kerrigan, Tonya Harding XVII Nagano, 1998 First time for Women’s hockey Reintroduced curling Added snowboarding NHL players allowed to participate Jonny Moseley, Picabo Street, Tara Lipinski XIX Salt Lake City, 2002 Return of skeleton Women’s bobsled French judge suspended for misconduct; gold medals given to both Russian and Canadian pairs Sarah Hughes WINTER Sport Books Publisher

WINTER XX Torino, 2006 Italy hosts for the second time
Extreme snowboard cross added Sarah Konrad, Shani Davis WINTER Sport Books Publisher

Sport and American Culture

Sport and Culture Sport and American culture are intricately intertwined in many significant ways Example: Olympics continue to be seen as a cultural event as well as arena for athletic accomplishment Sport Books Publisher

The Relationship Between Sport and Culture
Culture represents the ways of life people create in a given society It is a creation of people, not something that is imposed upon a group The relationship between sport and culture can be see in the following three areas: Sport Books Publisher

1. Quest for Excitement Sport appeals to participants’ or spectators’ quest for excitement Sport offers physical challenge and psychological risks that are hard to find in contemporary society Examples? Sport Books Publisher

2. The Appeal of Sports Everyone has an appreciation of the tremendous physical skills required to participate in high level sports Sport Books Publisher

3. Sport’s Cultural Significance
Because of our need for development of social identification and rivalries We need to be part of a collective whole and to identify with our accomplishments Example: “The Miracle on Ice” Sport Books Publisher

What is Sport Culture? Development of sport allowed the formation of a myriad of new social groups These groups formed their own criteria for acceptance to an inner circle, thus creating a “culture” within a particular sport Sport culture is constantly redefining itself Spectators have developed their own distinguishing social groups by aligning with a particular team Sport Books Publisher

What is Sport Culture? Sports Fans Versus Sports Fanatics Sports fans:
Passive admirers or true devotees Have true appreciation for the game Consider themselves as outsiders (i.e., can’t change the game) Sports fanatics: Have difficulty dissociating from the game Sport becomes and obsession Believe they can actually change the outcome Often engage in unruly behavior Sport Books Publisher

Gender and Sports Historical Review – handout
Title IX – Civil Rights Act of 1964 "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance...“ In 2002 it was renamed the Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act, in honor of its principal author Congresswoman Mink, but is most commonly known simply as Title IX Purpose – equal treatment of all Sport Books Publisher

Icons of American Sport

Baseball Satchel Paige Lou Gehrig One of the most dominant pitchers
Career of >4 decades and >2,500 games Started in Negro League (1920s) One of the early pioneers in breaking the color barrier in professional sport Lou Gehrig The original Iron Man Played 2,130 consecutive games In 1931 hit 181 RBIs (still an American League record) In 1941 died of ALS, now referred to as Lou Gehrig's disease Lou Gehrig Sport Books Publisher

Football Walter Payton Vince Lombardi
All-time leading rusher in professional football (until 2002) 2 time NFL MVP (1977 and 1985) Spent entire career with one organization – Chicago Bears High community involvement Vince Lombardi Named the coach of the century (2000; ESPN) Head coach of the Green Bay Packers (1958) Super bowl trophy now called the Vince Lombardi Trophy Sport Books Publisher

Professional Golf Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias
Tiger Woods Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias First and probably the finest female professional multi-sport athlete Basketball, track and field, golf First female to participate in men’s professional golf tournament (1945 Los Angeles open) Eldrick “Tiger” Woods Youngest golfer to achieve a world #1 ranking (age 21) By age 5 was featured in Golf Digest magazine Youngest golfer to achieve U.S. Amateur Championship (age 15) The first golfer to hold four major golf championship titles concurrently Sport Books Publisher

Olympic Athletes Mary Lou Retton Jesse Owens Muhammad Ali
Wilma Rudolph Olympic Athletes Mary Lou Retton 1st American to ever win Olympic gold in gymnastics (1984; age 16) Jesse Owens Shattered the walls of sports racism by leaving “the Hitler Olympics” (1936) with 4 gold medals Muhammad Ali Earned Olympic gold medal in boxing at age 18 (1960) Outspoken supporter of Civil Rights; refused induction into the U.S. army in 1967 Wilma Rudolph Star Olympic athlete in track and field United Press Athlete of the Year and the Associated Press Woman Athlete of the Year (1960) Carl Lewis Dominated track and field on the world stage for >decade Four Olympic gold medals in 1984 Last Olympic gold medal in 1996 at age 35 Sport Books Publisher

Basketball Michael Jordan Dr. James Naismith
One of the greatest athletes of all time 15-year NBA career NBA accolades: 6 championships, 7 scoring titles, 6 Finals MVP trophies, 5 league MVP trophies, 1 Defensive Player of the Year award Dr. James Naismith Canadian-born educator known as the inventor of basketball Also credited for developing first football helmet Sport Books Publisher

Professional Tennis Arthur Ashe Billie Jean (Moffit) King
Ranked number one in the world on several occasions Better known for being a courageous advocate for social change: Racism and apartheid in South Africa HIV and AIDS Billie Jean (Moffit) King Ranked number one in the world on numerous occasions A tireless advocate for women’s rights In “the Battle of the Sexes” (1973) King defeated former Wimbledon men’s champion Bobby Riggs (6-4, 6-3, 6-3) Billie Jean King Sport Books Publisher

The Business of Sport Sport Books Publisher

The Business of Sport Economic factors now dominate major decisions that affect the business of sport Sport is one of the fastest growing industries in the U.S. The economic conditions that allow corporate business to thrive are the same conditions necessary for the survival of commercial sport Sport Books Publisher

Revenues from sales of concessions
The Business of Sport Licensing fees Gate receipts Media rights Merchandise Revenues from sales of concessions Internet hits Other? Sponsorship Sport Books Publisher

Professional Sports in North America
Athletes are paid Sports are privately owned Table. Comparison of minor league versus top NA franchise owners Minor League Top franchise Profit Negative Lucky to break even Owners go out of business Make millions of dollars Owner description Individuals or partnership Large corporations, wealthy partnerships, or individuals Sport Books Publisher

Amateur Sport in the US Athletes participate for the love of the game, not for a salary Do not have owner Have governing bodies: President’s Council on Physical Fitness United States Olympic Committee Amateur Athletic Union Sport Books Publisher

Sport Sponsorship An agreement between a commercial company and an individual, team, or sport that in return for money athletes advertise the names of sponsors through: Clothing lines, corporate logos, TV ads, and choice of commodities Found in professional and amateur sports Sport Books Publisher

Sport Sponsorship: Advantages and Disadvantages for Professional Athletes
Money Made Money Lost Sport Books Publisher

Sport Sponsorship: Advantages and Disadvantages for Amateur Athletes
Allows athletes to give up a job and train full-time Strong reliance = powerful hold by the sponsor Sponsors request changes in organization Hard to attract sponsors if low TV appeal Sport Books Publisher

Sport Sponsorship: How It All Works
Agreed period of time (months or years) Sign legal agreement to prevent quick termination if things go wrong Example: Actions of athlete brings bad publicity Example: Sponsor is linked with unethical practice Since this agreement is difficult to terminate, it important to make correct selection Clip art Sport Books Publisher

Sport Sponsorship: The Nature of the Sponsorship
Should companies that sell unsuitable products be allowed to sponsor sports? Amateur sports: many colleges and universities no longer willing to sign agreements with unsuitable sponsors Professional sports: many franchises are sponsored by precisely such organizations Clip art Sport Books Publisher

Sport as a Spectacle Sport Books Publisher

Television Televised sports have become a form of sportainment
The equivalent of a TV movie that claims to be based on a true story Sports account for a growing proportion of income made on the sales of commercial time by television companies TV companies are therefore willing to spend an escalating amount of money for the rights to televise certain sports and sporting events Clip art Sport Books Publisher

One sports page in common newspapers
Sports page expanded to sports “section” ~1900’s ’s TODAY More daily coverage devoted to sport than any other topic (~25%) Sports section = 1/3 of total circulation Tremendous circulation reaches millions of readers Large advertising revenues for newspapers Sport Books Publisher

Books and Magazines Magazines Books About major and minor sports
Popular content: biographies, statistics, pictures, all forms of news Magazines about sports in general are harder to find and generally sales have not done well (exception: Sports Illustrated) Books Popular content: (auto)biographies, coaching, and training Less popular content: novels based on sport Sport Books Publisher

Radio Before TV, radio was #1 media form
Advantages of radio (versus TV) live event broadcasting: Company: More economical because it involves smaller # of broadcasters and producers Listener: Costs less, more mobile – therefore can do other things at the same time Sport Books Publisher

Film and Video In spite of their dramatic content, sports are not a popular topic for films and videos Video collection of sporting moments and instructional videos remain popular Sport Books Publisher

Internet Unlike other media forms: Use of Internet:
Allows the consumer to access information at the time of his or her choosing Not limited to sequential programming Use of Internet: Extension of existing media Fantasy leagues Clip art Sport Books Publisher

Being and Informed Consumer

Corporations have a financial interest in the average American citizen
Sport commercialism, as well as our rich sports history, impact on us as individual consumers Corporations have a financial interest in the average American citizen U.S. high school student Sport Books Publisher

Factors Influencing Student Participation
People participate in physical activity (PA) for different reasons at different points in their lives Issues considered by high school students will be different than those considered by adults Sport Books Publisher

Individual perception of sport and PA American athlete role models
Participation Individual perception of sport and PA Commercial interests Media influences Teacher or coach American athlete role models Other ? Sport Books Publisher

The Benefits of School and Community PA
Improved fitness levels Improved self-esteem and overall mood Lower hospitalization costs Greater overall acceptance by one’s peers Development of school spirit Improving cohesion among students and faculty Other? Improved fitness Sport Books Publisher

The Importance of Being an Informed Consumer
Advertisers constantly tell us that what we currently have comes up far short We will almost always feel the need to buy more and better sports and exercise equipment Sport Books Publisher

Technology Continues to change sports:
Tennis players hit with greater power using larger, graphite, tightly strung rackets Golfers have advantage by playing with titanium heads Introduction of the flexible fiberglass pole completely changed pole vaulting Other examples? However, the choice of racket or club will make little, if any, difference to nonelite performance Therefore, it is best to go with less expensive equipment until an advanced level is reached Sport Books Publisher

Clothing Have performance benefit:
Heat removal Windproof Aerodynamic advantage Biomechanical advantage of shoes Again, these technological advances have little benefit for nonelite performance Sport Books Publisher

Summary: History of sport in the U.S.
Brief retrospective of the Olympic Games Reflection on some of the most significant American sports role models Relationship between sport and culture in the U.S. Sport has become a business and a spectacle Impact of sports trends on us as individuals Sport Books Publisher

Society, Culture, and Sport

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