2. Examine key traits that makes us human. Identify when and how they revealed in the fossil record. Identify who were the australopithecines, and what role did they play in human evolution. Examine when and where did hominids first make tools.

3. Although recent fossils discoveries have pushed the hominid lineage back to almost six million years ago, humans actually haven’t been around too long when the age of earth considered. If we compare Earth’s history to a 24-hour day (with one second equaling 50,000 years) Earth originated at midnight. The earliest fossils were deposited at 5:45 A.M. The first vertebrates appeared at 9:02 P.M. The earliest mammals, at 10:45 P.M. The earliest primates, at 11:42 P.M. The earliest hominids, at11:56 P.M. Homo Sapiens arrived 36 seconds before midnight.

4. Bones of more than 500 early hominids have been found From these bones, we have gained a broad understanding of these related species By 3mya most hominids were bipedal These hominids had a pelvis similar to humans

5. The “family of primates that includes humans and our ancestors since diverging from the last common ancestor with chimpanzees, about 6 million years ago” (Stanford, Allen & Antón 2006: 321)

6. Paleo-anthropologists Study the remains of hominid skeletons Determine what early hominids looked like & how they lived Archeologists Study artifacts, objects made & used by hominids Learn about ancient people & their cultures Culture is the beliefs, knowledge and the way of life developed by a group of people.

7. Bipedal hominids emerged in Africa. The emergence of bipedal hominids coincides with a change from extensive tropical forest cover to more discontinuous patches of forest and open country about 16-11 million years ago.

8. To adapt for life amid the tall grasses of the savannas because erect position may have made it easier to spot ground predator. Baboons and other Old World Monkeys live in savanna environments, yet, although they can stand erect and occasionally do so, they have not evolved fully bipedal locomotion.

9. Other theories stress the importance of freeing the hands. Freeing the hands for carrying food and provisioning families. Bipedalism might have been favored by natural selection because the freeing of the hands would allow protohominids to use, and perhaps even make, tools that they could carry with them as they moved about. Without tools, primates in general are not well equipped physically for regular hunting or even scavenging.

10. Bipedalism appears to be more efficient for long-distance travel. Bipedalism might have been favored by natural selection as a way of regulating body temperature, particularly in the increasingly hot and dry environment of East Africa. Bipedal posture limit the area of the body directly exposed to the sun. All theories are speculative.

11. Bipedalism makes it harder to overcome gravity to supply the brain with sufficient blood. The weight of the body above the pelvis and lower limbs puts greater stress on the hips, lower back, knees, and feet. The stresses on the lower body are even greater for females. Females have to support extra weight during pregnancy, and as mothers they usually are responsible for carrying nursing infants.

13. Site Dates (m.y.a.) Hominids East Africa Middle Awash (Ethiopia; five localities) 5.8–5.2Ardipithecus Aramis (Ethiopia)4.4 Ardipithecus ramidus Central Africa Tugen Hills~6.0Orrorin tugenensis Toros-Menalla~7.0 Sahelanthropus tchadenis

14. Body WeightStature MaleFemaleMaleFemale A. afarensis99 lb64 lb59 in.41 in. A. africanus90 lb65 lb54 in.45 in. South African “robust” 88 lb70 lb52 in.43 in. East African “robust” 108 lb75 lb54 in.49 in. H. habilis114 lb70 lb62 in.49 in.

15. An early hominid genus, known from the Plio-Pleistocene of Africa. Characterized by Bipedal locomotion Relatively small brain Large back teeth.

16. Includes fossils found at two sites. Laetoli, Tanzania (3.8 – 3.6 m.y.a.) Hadar in the Afar region of Ethiopia (3.3 – 3.0 m.y.a.) Based on current evidence, Au. Afarensis lived between 3.8 and 3.0 m.y.a.

17. Although the hominid remains at Laetoli and Hadar were deposited half a million years apart, their many resemblances explain their placement in the same species.

18. Laetoli, Tanzania (3.8 – 3.6 m.y.a.) Research directed by Mary Leakey. 2 dozen specimens. Mainly teeth and jaw fragments, and fossilized footprints.

19. Hadar in the Afar region of Ethiopia (3.3 – 3.0 m.y.a.) Expedition directed by D.C. Johnson and M. Taieb Between 35 and 65 individuals Skull fragments and postcranial materials. Most notably 40% of the complete skeleton of “Lucy” who lived around 3 m.y.a.

20. Although clearly a hominid, was very similar in many ways to chimps and gorillas. From the same general area of northern Ethiopia as Lucy come another important member of Au. Afarensis. This toddler, was the world’s oldest fossil child, soon was dubbed “Lucy’s baby” – despite having lived a hundred thousand years before Lucy. The child is a complete find, with a more intact skull and much more skeletal material than exist for Lucy. The skull and upper body are apelike, while the lower body confirm Bipedalism. The skeleton’s upper body includes two complete shoulder blades similar to a gorilla’s, so it probably was better at climbing than human are. Unearthed in 2000, the child probably was female and about 3 years old when she died.

21. If Lucy’s baby had lived, she would have developed rapidly, reaching adulthood earlier than modern humans, and her lifespan would have been much shorter than ours. The Afarensis growth cycle was more similar to the chimpanzee pattern than to the modern human pattern. The shorter growth period would have allowed less time for guidance and socialization.

22. Mainly vegetarian diet included leaves, seeds, fruits, and nuts. They probably ate insects, and small vertebrates, such as lizards. The Au. Afarensis skull contrasts with those of later hominids. Its cranial capacity (430cm) barely surpass the chimp average (390cm). Below the neck, however, Au. Afarensis was unquestionably human.

23. Although bipedal, Au. Afararensis still contrasts in many ways with later hominids. Sexual dimorphism is specially marked. Au. Afarensis females stood between 3 and 4 feet tall; males might have reached 5 feet. Adult males weighted perhaps twice as much as the females did.

24. Discovered in Africa 3 to 4 million years ago in Eastern Africa About 3 feet tall Bipeds – they walked on two feet Could gather & carry food Could defend themselves and carry their children Their brains were about 1/3 the size of our = not as smart Did not make tools

25. Dated to 3.6 million years ago,the robust male stood between 1.5 and 1.7 meters tall, about 30% larger than Lucy. Isolated bones of other individuals suggest that some males were even larger, so the new skeleton doesn’t settle a long-standing debate over just how much sexual dimorphism there was in A. afarensis An early Australopithecus afarensis postcranium from Woranso-Mille, Ethiopia Haile-Selassie et al. PNAS | July 6, 2010 | vol. 107 | no. 27 | 12121–12126

27. First evidence of erect bipedal hominid discovered by professor Raymond Dart in 1925. Found in the Taung cave on the edge of the Kalahari Desert. By the teeth Dart identified the fossil as the remains of a 5- to 7- year old child (recent analysis suggest the child is no more than 3 ½). He named it Australopithecus Africanus which means “Southern Ape of Africa.”

28. Dart’s conclusion met with widespread skepticism and opposition. Scientists believed hominids had originated in Asia. Dart found only one fossil, it was of an infant not of an adult. No other fossils had yet been found in Africa. Other Australopithecus were not discovered until 1930s. Dart’s conclusion did not begin to be accepted until after 1945. Since the Taung Child’s discovery 80 years ago, the remains of hundreds of other similar Australopithecus have been unearthed from caves in South Africa.

29. Cranial capacity: Between 428 and 485 cc. Very small. Adults were 3 ½ to 4 ½ feet tall. 60 to 90 pounds.

30. Dating of the Australopithecus finds from the South African limestone caves is difficult because none of the absolute dating techniques can be applied. But relative dating suggest that A. Africanus lived between 3 million and 2 million years ago. The climate was not too different from the climate of today.

32. Lived in eastern African and in southern African from about 2.7 million to 1 million years ago. Some paleoanthropologists think these fossils are so different that they deserve to be classified in a different genus, which they call Paranthropus (“beside humans.”) Found in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

33. Had thicker jaws, with larger molars. Cranial Capacity about 490-530 cc) It used to be thought that the robust Australopithecines were substantially bigger than the other Australopithecines, but recent studies suggest that these australopithecines were not different in body weight or heights. The robustness is primarily in the skill and jaw.

35. Most paleoanthropologist classify the East African A. Robust from 2.3 t0 1.3 million years ago as A. Boisei. Discovered by Louis Leakey at Olduvia Gorge in western Tanzania in 1959. The discovery of A. Boisei was particularly important because it demonstrated that early hominids were present in East Africa. Until then, it was thought that South Africa was the homeland of the hominids.

36. Had even more extreme features and had thicker jaws, with larger molars than A. Robust. Cranial Capacity about 490-530 cc) Lived in dry, open environment (2.3 – 1.3 m.y.a.) and ate a lot of coarse seeds, nuts, and roots.

37. Most paleoanthropologists think A. boisei and A. robustus are not ancestral to our genus, Homo. We are not sure if they made stone tools since they lived alongside at least two other hominid species – Home habilies and Homo erectus – Who are the more likely toolmakers.

39. Earliest tools found in East Africa. About 2.6 million years old. Each stone was his with another to create a sharp edge.

40. One unsharpened side could be used as a handle. Around 2 million years ago hominids were cutting up animal carcasses for meat. Microscopic analysis show cut marks on animal bones created by stone flakes.

41. The australopithecines had relatively small cranial capacities (About 380-530 cubic centimeters (cc) – not much larger than that of chimpanzees. Around 2.3 million years ago, close to the time that patterned stone tools first appeared, some hominids show evidence of enlarged brain capacity. Early Homo, had cranial capacities averaging about 630-640 cc, which is about 50% of the brain capacity of modern humans (which average slightly more than 1,300 cc).

42. Australopithecines all have cheek teeth that are very large relative to their estimated body weight, perhaps because their diet was high in plant foods. The expansion of the brain and reduction of the face occurred at about the same time, and were probably related.

44. Hominids with a brain larger than that of the australopithecines appeared about 2.3 million years ago. These hominids, classified into our genus, Homo, are divided into two species: Homo habilis Homo rudolfensis.

45. Both are known from the western parts of Kenya and Tanzania, but remains have been found elsewhere in eastern and southern Africa including Ethiopia and South Africa. Both lived in the same place and time as the robust australopithecine and australopithecine boisei, and may have lived at the same time as Homo erectus.

46. Homo habilis appears to be the earlier of these two species about 2.3 m.y.a. 630-640 cc. Similar to australopithecines. Presence of powerful hands and long arms suggest partial arboreal. Sexually dimorphic.

47. aka: Handy Man Discovered in Africa, by a husband-wife team Louis and Mary Leakey. The Leakeys named their discovery Homo Habilis, or Handy Man because the artifacts they discovered that looked like tools. Handy Man also had a combination of human and ape features. They were bipeds but they were taller than Lucy with slightly more humanlike features. Handy Man’s brain was twice the size of Lucy’s. Handy Man lived in groups, this allowed them to work together to: gather food protect themselves

48. They were more advanced than Lucy, however, his tools were very simple. They used: rocks as chopping tools sharp pieces of stone for cutting animal bones as digging sticks Making a tool takes some thought. They had to imagine the tool, then plan how to craft it and then make it. They may have passed this knowledge down. These tools allowed Handy Man to lead a better life than Lucy. With their tools they could: cut meat off of dead animals crack animal bones dig traps for small animals

49. Lived 2 to 1.5 million years ago Nicknamed “Handy Man” Taller than Lucy & their brain was twice as big Had ability to make tools Remains found only in Africa Lived in small groups to work together & protect each other First hominids to make simple stone tools

51. Homo erectus evolved shortly after Homo habilies. The first hominid species to be widely distributed in the Old World. Found in Java, China, Africa, and Europe. Most paleoanthropologists agree that some human ancestor moved from Africa to Asia at some point. There is also the question of whether there is only one species of H. erectus or contains several distinct species

52. aka: Upright Man A third type of hominid was discovered in 1891 by Eugene Dubois. It was found on the island of Java off the coast of Asia. He was found before Lucy or Handy Man. Upright Man was around much longer than any hominid group. Scientists believe that they were the first to migrate out of Africa. Their remains have been found in parts of Asia and Europe. Upright Man was taller and thinner than earlier hominids. Their bones were strong and they were good walkers and runners. The face was much more like Modern Humans. Their foreheads were round and smooth, but they still had a jaw and brow that stuck out.

53. Upright Man still had Handy Man’s tools, plus he had a bigger brain. So, Upright Man was able to improve Handy Man’s tools and invent better ones. Upright Man’s biggest discovery was fire. Upright Man used fire to cook their meat. Upright Man built huts and used fire and animal skins to keep warm and comfortable. Building shelters gave Upright Man protection from the weather and any animals that might want to hurt them. He had the first hominid communities.

54. Nicknamed “Upright Man” Was around longer than other hominids – from 1.8 million to 200,000 B.C.E. Migrated (moved) – to other continents like Europe & Asia They had strong bones & were good walkers and runners Looked more human like Made more complex tools (hand-axes) First to use FIRE (too keep warm & scare off animals) Lived with group in huts

56. Most anthropologists agree that H. erectus evolved into H. sapiens, but they disagree about how and where the transition occurred. Disagreement about how to classify some fossils from about 500,000 to 200,000 years ago that have a mix of H. erectus and H. sapiens traits. A particular fossil might be called H. erectus by some anthropologists and “archaic” H. sapiens by others.

57. Some scholars have suggested that the “transitional” fossils share common traits and may actually represent a separate species – Homo heidelbergensis. Named after a jaw founded in 1907 in the village of Mauer Heidelberg, Germany.

58. Other specimen have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. Homo Heidelbergensis differs from H. erectus in Having smaller teeth and jaws A much larger brain (1,300 cc)

60. Aka: Wise Man Discovered in the Neander Valley (Tal) near Dusseldorf, Germany, in 1856 by mine workers. Scientist believe that it is from a group of big brained hominids that modern humans belong to. Neanderthals walked upright, they were shorter and stockier than modern humans but they were also stronger. Neanderthals created more than 60 tools, including: knives, spears, scrapers and sharp thin blades.

61. When Neanderthals were sick or injured, their community took care of them. When Neanderthals died they were buried in burial mounds with hunting tools and flowers. When they hunted, Neanderthals worked together in groups to trap an animal. H. neanderthalensis coexisted with H. sapiens for at least 20,000 years, perhaps as long as 60,000 years. Scientists don’t know how they disappeared. All they know is that only one type of Homo sapiens survived to become early modern humans.

62. Lived from 230,000- 30,000 years ago Lived in Africa, Near East, Europe, Asia Had large brains (averaging more than 1,450 cc) large torso, short limbs, broad nasal passages Had a sense of community, took care of their sick and injured, & had burials Lived, traveled & hunted in groups

63. The predominant reaction was that Neanderthals were too “brutish” and “primitive.” to have been ancestral to modern humans. When the much more ancient australopithecine and H. erectus fossils were accepted as hominids in the 1940s and 1950s, anthropologists realized that the Neanderthals did not look that different from modern humans.

64. H. neanderthalensis coexisted with H. sapiens for at least 20,000 years, perhaps as long as 60,000 years What happened? Neandertals interbred with H. sapiens Neandertals were killed off by H. sapiens H. sapiens drove Neandertals into extinction by competition Neanderthal existence Neanderthal versus Homo sapiens http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LVp4MOh-gc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRHzOt- kQok&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndwzAw8fch U&feature=related

66. aka: Early Modern Humans or Doubly Wise Man Lived in Europe, Asia, Australia and eventually (across land bridges) North and South America. High rounded skulls, large brains, small teeth and slender bones. They were not adapted for the cold as well as Neanderthals.

67. They survived because they could create better tools, shelter and clothing. They made hooks and spears and the bow and arrow. They made tools for engraving and sculpting (art) and made needles to sew clothes of animal skins. They also built shelters of earth and stone.

68. Thanks to the cave art left by the Early Modern Humans we have a fascinating record of their lives. They made sculptures, cave art, and even invented instruments. Scientists aren’t sure why they created their art, maybe it was a teaching tool, decoration or maybe it had to do with a religion. One thing that this art show is that they had the ability to dream and express their feelings. They didn’t just survive, they lived!

69. Lived from 35,000-12,000 B.C.E Originated in Africa but moved all over the world Migrated from Asia to North and South America using land bridges Made better tools, shelter & clothing than Neanderthals Made spears and bows and arrows to hunt animals from a safe distance. Made needles to sew animal hide together The first artists – left behind cave paintings of animals they hunted and imaginary creatures.

70. 70 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-vJU8KQAHvw Homo floresiensis The Hobbit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vafMO0bPbYE Transition species: Australopithecus sediba http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqPWSdYvMXQ

71. Australopithecus Sediba 1.9 Million years old Found in South Africa Discovered in 2010 by a 9 year old boy! A possible ancestor of Homo erectus, an immediate predecessor to Homo sapiens, or a close “side branch” that did not lead to modern humans.