1. Skeletal System
Chapter 7

2. Skeletal System = bones, joints, cartilages, ligaments

3. Axial skeleton: long axis (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)
Appendicular skeleton: limbs and girdles

4. Appendicular Skeleton
Axial Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
Cranium (skull)
Mandible (jaw)
Vertebral column (spine)
Cervical vertebrae
Thoracic vertebrae
Lumbar vertebrae
Sacrum
Coccyx
Sternum (breastbone)
Ribs
Clavicle (collarbone)
Scapula (shoulder blade)
Coxal (pelvic girdle)
Humerus (arm)
Radius, ulna (forearm)
Carpals (wrist)
Metacarpals (hand)
Phalanges (fingers, toes)
Femur (thigh)
Tibia, fibula (leg)
Tarsal, metatarsals (foot)
Calcaneus (heel)
Patella (knee)

5. Functions of the Bones Support body and cradle soft organs
Protect vital organs
Movement: muscles move bones
Storage of minerals (calcium, phosphorus) & growth factors
Blood cell formation in bone marrow
Triglyceride (fat) storage

6. Function: Why do we need a skeleton?
Support and Protection
Lower Limbs, pelvis, and backbone  Support Body Weight
Skull  Protect eyes, ears, brain
Rib cage & Shoulder girdle  Protect heart and lungs
Pelvic girdle  Protect lower abdomen and internal reproductive organs

7. Function: Why do we need a skeleton?
Formation of Blood Cells
Called  Hematopoiesis
Hemaglobin - gives blood red color; oxygen-binding pigment in RBCs
“hema” – blood
Within the Red Marrow

8. Function: Why do we need a skeleton?
Storage for minerals (Ca, P)
Body breaks down bone tissue to release Ca when blood Ca levels are low
Attachment of muscles
Levers- movement due to bone/muscle interaction

9. Parts of a Long Bone Epiphysis Diaphysis Epiphyseal Line
Expanded portion at the end of a bone
“epi” – on, above
Diaphysis
Shaft of bone located between the epiphyses
“dia” – apart, through
Epiphyseal Line
Growth plate
Articular Cartilage
Coating of hyaline cartilage on the articulating portion of the epiphysis

10. Parts of a Long Bone Periosteum Endosteum Medullary Canal
Connective tissue that covers the bone
“peri”- around
Endosteum
Tissue that lines the medullary canal (transport)
“endo” - inside
Medullary Canal
Canal in the shaft of the bone that houses bone marrow

11. Generalized Bone Structure
Mineral
Hydroxyapatite
Calcium-containing part of bone matrix  rigidity
Collagen
Strength, flexibility

12. Classification of Bones
Long bones
Longer than they are wide (eg. femur, metacarpels)
Short bones
Cube-shaped bones (eg. wrist and ankle)
Sesamoid bones (within tendons – eg. patella)
Flat bones
Thin, flat, slightly curved (eg. sternum, skull)
Irregular bones
Complicated shapes (eg. vertebrae, hips)

13. Figure 6.2

14. Types of Bone Adult = 206 bones Types of bone tissue: Features:
Compact bone: outer layer – dense & solid
Spongy bone: inner layer - open spaces, marrow
Features:
Very hard (calcium salts)
Light weight
Ability to resist tension and forces (collagen fibers)

15. Bone Development Osteogenesis (ossification): bone tissue formation
Stages:
Begins at 8 weeks gestation
Start as cartilage  replaced by bone
Post-natal bone growth  early adulthood
Epiphyseal plates: (growth plates) regions where long bones lengthen
Appositional growth: bones increase in thickness
Bone modeling and repair – lifelong

16. Formation of bony skeleton

17. Epiphyseal plates

19. Epiphyseal plates

20. Hormonal Control Growth hormones: stimulate longitudinal bone growth
Thyroid hormone: control activity of growth hormone
Testosterone & estrogens (at puberty):
Adolescent growth spurt
Close epiphyseal plates  end growth

21. Bone Cells Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells
Osteocytes: mature bone cell (doesn’t divide)
Osteoclasts: dissolve/break down bone (bone resorption)

23. Fractures – A break in the bone
Classification of Fractures:
Closed or Simple
The skin is not broken
Open or Compound
The skin is broken

24. Types of fractures based on bone breakage
Complete
Bone is broken in 2 parts
Incomplete/Greenstick
Bone is cracked (like a green stick)
Communitive
Bone is broken in several places

25. Mending Reduction (setting of the bone) Closed Reduction
Manipulate bone from ends
Open Reduction
Surgically manipulate bones

26. Healing of Bones
Blood escapes from ruptured blood vessels and forms a hematoma. Phagocytes clean up area of break
Spongy bone forms in regions close to developing blood vessels and fibrocartilage forms in more distant regions
Osteoblasts disperse from the periosteum
Fibrocartilage is replaced by a bony callus
Osteoclasts remove excess bony tissue – the repair is much like the original

28. Factors that affect healing
Quality of set
Immobilization
Amount of blood to fracture
Early weight bearing

29. Microscopic Bone Structure
Osteocytes - mature bone cell
Lacuna - hollow canal containing osteocytes
Central Canal – tiny channel in bone tissue that contains a blood vessel – supplies blood to the cell
Osteoblast – bone-forming cells
Collagen
Inorganic salt that gives bone its strength
Resists crushing
Osteon
Cylinder-shaped arrangement of osteocytes
Location: compact bone
Perforating Canals
Extension of a central canal in transverse sections

32. Types of Marrow Red Yellow Located in spongy bone Forms:
RBCs  erythrocytes
WBCs  leukocytes
Blood Platelets
Yellow
Located in the medullary canal
Stores mostly adipose tissue

33. Bone Development & Growth
Parts of the skeleton begin forming in the first few weeks of development
Growth continues into the teens/20’s
Intramembranous bones – broad flat bones (skull, mandible, clavicle)
Membrane-like layers of connective tissue appear
Tissue differentiates into osteoblasts
Osteoblasts create the bone

34. Bone Development & Growth
Endochondral Bones
Most bones are this type
Develop from masses of hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage grows rapidly, creating the shape of the bone
Growth begins 8 weeks after conception
Generates most long bones

35. Male vs. Female Bone Structure

36. Bone Structure: Gender Differences
Male Skull
Larger and heavier
Forehead shorter
Face less round
Jaw larger
Mastoid processes more prominent
Male pelvic bones
Heavier and thicker
Obturator foramen and acetabula are larger and closer together

37. Bones and Articulation
Occurs at a joint
Where two or more bones meet
Remember… What type of
cartilage do we find here???
ARTICULAR!

38. Other terminology Foramen Hole going through a bone Fossa
Depression or pit in a bone
Condyle
Smooth round surface
(think of the knobs on a milk bone)

39. Other Terminology Tuberosity or Tubercle
Roughened bump for muscle attachment
Crest
Ridge for muscle attachment
Meatus
Tunnel through a bone

40. The Axial Skeleton - Skull
2 bone types:
Cranial – form the top, sides, and back of the skull
Facial – form the face

41. SKULL Frontal Bone 2 sinuses Superior walls of the orbit Parietal Bone
Sagittal suture
Coronal suture
Occipital Bone
Supports the main weight of the head
Lambdoidal suture
Foramen Magnum – opening in the occipital bone through which the spinal cord passes
Occipital Condyle - an articular surface on the occipital bone on each side of the foramen magnum by which the skull articulates

44. SKULL (2) Temporal Bone Squamosal suture
Styloid process - a sharp spine that projects downward and forward from the inferior surface of the temporal bone
Mastoid Process – bony protuberance of the temporal bone directly behind the ear – site of muscle attachment for jaw

45. SKULL (3) Sphenoid Bone Base of the cranium, sides of the skull
Sella Turcica (Turk’s Saddle) – cradle for the pituitary gland
2 sinuses
Ethmoid Bone
Crista Galli (cock’s comb) – attaches the meninges
Cribriform Plate – thinnest bone in the body
Increases internal surface area/covered mucus membranes for the olfactory nerve branches

47. The Face
Maxilla
Infraorbital foramen – passageway for infraorbital artery, vein and nerve
Alveoli – tooth sockets
2 sinuses
Palatine processes – large portion of hard palate, cleft palate occurs where when fusion is incomplete
Incisive orbit – behind the incisors
Alveolar Arch – ridge formed where teeth project from jaw, teeth held in by connective tissue

48. The Face (2) Palatine Zygomatic Nasal
Lesser portion of the hard palate (posterior portion)
Zygomatic
“Cheek bone”
Lateral walls and floor of orbits
Temporal process – zygomatic arch
Nasal
Bridge of the nose – attachment for hyaline

50. The Face (3) Mandible Only movable bone in the skull
Mandibular Condyles – insert into mandibular fossa of temporal bone… this joint is called the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
Alveoli – holds teeth
Mental Foramen – opening for nerves and vessels for chin and lower lip
Mandibular Foramen – opening on the inner surface for nerves and vessels to enter the jaw and go to teeth

52. The Face (4) Hyoid – only “free-floating” bone in body
Allows for tongue muscle attachment to assist in swallowing
Bones of inner ear:
Incus
Stapes
Malleus

53. “Soft spots” felt on an infant's skull are actually fontanelles
Fibrous connective tissue that connect the incompletely developed flat bones

54. The Axial Skeleton - Thoracic Cage
Includes:
Ribs
Thoracic vertebrae
Sternum
Costal cartilage

55. The Sternum The breastbone
On the midline in the anterior portion of the
thoracic
Flat, elongated bone with 3 parts
Manubrium
Upper portion,
articulates w/ clavicles
(collar bone)
Body
Middle portion
Xyphoid process
Lower portion
Attachment of abdominal muscles
Ossified by age 40
Jugular (sternal) Notch – superior indentation

56. Costal Cartilage Cartilage that attaches the ribs to the sternum
Flexible
Allows for the
expansion/
compression of the
thoracic cage

57. Ribs
12 pairs of ribs
One pair attached to each of the 12 thoracic vertebrae
True Ribs
First 7 pair
Join the sternum directly by the costal cartilage
False Ribs
Ribs 8-10
Costal cartilage joins to rib #7
Floating Ribs
Ribs 11-12
No attachment to the sternum

58. Organization of the Vertebral Column
7 Cervical Vertebrae
12 Thoracic Vertebrae
5 Lumbar Vertebrae
Sacrum
Coccyx

59. Cervical Vertebrae 7 vertebrae Bony axis of the neck
Atlas (1st cervical vertebrae)
Supports the weight of the head
Facets articulate w/occipital condyle
Axis (second cervical vertebrae)
Contains tooth-like dens allowing for the articulation of the head

60. Thoracic Vertebrae 12 vertebrae Larger than the cervical
Tubercles of ribs attach to the
transverse processes
Increase in size as you move down
the vertebral column
Supports the increasing weight
of the body

61. Lumbar Vertebrae 5 vertebrae of the lower back
Larger, stronger bodies to support more weight

62. Sacrum Triangular structure composed of 5 fused vertebrae
Forms the base of the vertebral column
The fused spinous processes form a ridge of tubercles
Makes openings (dorsal sacral foramina) to allow for nerve and blood passage

63. Coccyx Lowest part of the vertebral column
Serves as shock absorber and provides a path for some spinal nerves
Composed of 4 fused vertebrae
“tail bone”

64. Vertebral Column Characteristics
Vertebrae Anatomy
Body
Weight bearing, withstands compression
Vertebral arch – 2 pedicles (bases), 2 lamina (arched roofs)
Spina bifida occurs when lamina (layers) do not fuse and spinal chord is exposed
Spinous Process
Form neural arch as laminal fuse – important for muscle attachment
Transverse Process
Form where lamina and pedicle fuse, in thoracic region the ribs are attached here, site of muscle attachment

66. Vertebral Column Characteristics
Vertebrae Anatomy (Continued)
Vertebral Foramen
Hollow space formed by body and neural arch, encloses spinal cord
Intervertebral Discs
Between each vertebra; fibrocartilage pads
Each disc has a jelly-like center
Slipped or ruptured discs pinch spinal nerve
Ruptured discs sometime occur w/ advancing age when cartilage cracks allowing the gelatinous center to leak out

68. Basic Vertebrae Anatomy Key Terms to Know (will see on practical): - Inferior Vertebral Notch - Superior Vertebral Notch

69. Basic Vertebrae Anatomy Key Terms to Know (will see on practical): - Spinous Process - Vertebral Foramen - Transverse process - Pedicle - Lamina - Superior Articular Process - Inferior Articular Process

70. The Appendicular Skeleton
The limbs and such!

71. Pectoral Girdle 2 Scapula (shoulder blades) 2 clavicles (collar bone)
15 different muscles attach to the scapula
Spine
ridge on scapula that allows for muscle attachment
2 clavicles (collar bone)
Incomplete, no posterior attachment
Anterior attachment “sternoclavicular junction”
Provides attachment for arm muscles

72. The Arm Humerus Head articulates with scapula’s glenoid fossa
Olecranon fossa
Posterior surface, receives
olecranon process of the
ulna
Capitulum
Articulates w/ the head of
the radius

73. The Arm Radius Ulna Head rotates in radial notch of the ulna
Styloid process – lateral surface of the forearm
Ulna
Olecranon process
Radial notch – receives
the head of the radius

74. The Hand Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges 8 short bones, gliding joints
Trapezium, scaphoid (navicular), trapezoid, lunate, capitate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform
Metacarpals
5 in the palm of the hand
Numbered 1-5 starting w/ the bone by the thumb
Phalanges
14 – each finger has 3 (proximal, middle, distal)
Thumb only has 2

75. Pelvic Girdle Pelvis 2 coxae (coxal bones) Composed of 3 fused bones
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
Sacroiliac Joint – ilium bones articulate w/ sacrum
Pubic Symphysis – area where pubis bones join (fibrocartilage)
Acetabulum – Forms socket of ball and socket joint

76. Pelvic Girdle (2) Ilium Ischium Pubis Iliac crest – superior surface
Greater Sciatic Notch – large indentation for passage of sciatic nerve
Ischium
Obturator foramen – covered w/ membrane that has openings for obturator nerves, vessels and muscle
Pubis
Aids in forming acetabulum and obturator foramen

77. Pelvic Girdle

78. The Legs Femur Longest, heaviest bone in the body
Fovea capitus – pit in head of the bone, serves as an attachment site for ligament that anchors the femur to the acetabulum
Linea aspera – rough line (thigh muscle attachment)
Greater trochanter
Lesser trochanter
Patella
Floating bone
Apex points towards the bottom
Articular facets – smooth posterior surfaces for articulation

79. The Legs (2) Tibia “shin bone” Anterior crest – only covered by skin
Medial Malleolus – less prominent of the two projections of the inferior portion of the leg
Fibula
Serves to reinforce the tibia and site for muscle attachment
Does not carry body weight
Not part of the knee joint – articulates w/ tibia
Lateral Malleolus – most prominent projection of the inferior part of the lower leg

80. The Feet Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges 7 bones of the ankle
Talus – supports the most weight
Calcaneous – heel bone, site of Achilles tendon attachment
Scaphoid (navicular), cuboid, Lateral/Intermediate/Medial Cuneiform
Metatarsals
5 bones; numbered starting w/ the big toe
Phalanges
14 bones, similar to hand

81. The Arches Allow a great weight to be carried over a small area
Formed by ligaments and muscles holding the tarsals and metatarsal bones in a curved position
Three Arches
Lateral Longitudinal Arch – heel to toe
Medial Longitudinal Arch - heel to toe
Transverse Arch – Left to right

82. The Spinal Column 7 Cervical vertebrae 12 Thoracic vertebrae
5 Lumbar vertebrae
Sacrum
Coccyx

83. Right! Apply Your Knowledge ANSWER:
Cervical – 7
ANSWER:
Identify the sections of the spinal column and give the number of vertebrae for each.
Thoracic – 12
Sacrum – 5 fused
Lumbar – 5
Right!
Coccyx – 3 to 5 fused

84. Apply Your Knowledge BRAVO! ANSWER: T F F T F True or False:
___ The sternum forms the front middle portion of the rib cage.
___ The xyphoid process is a boney tip of the sternum.
___ The true ribs are the first five pairs of ribs.
___ False ribs attach to the costal cartilage of rib pair seven.
___ Floating ribs attach to the xyphoid process. F
cartilaginous F
seven T F
do not attach anteriorly to any structure.

85. Joints (or articulations)
Where two or more bones meet
Functions: movement, hold skeleton together
Classified by structure (or function):
Fibrous: immovable joint
Cartilaginous: slightly movable
Synovial: freely movable

86. Fibrous Joints No movement Located:
Sutures: bones of skull held together by connective tissue fibers
Between teeth & jaws

87. Cartilaginous Joints Bones united by cartilage Minimal movement
Located:
Epiphyseal plates
Rib & sternum
Pubic symphysis

88. Synovial Joints Most movement
Bones separated by fluid- containing joint cavity
Synovial fluid reduces friction between cartilages
Menisci: fibrocartilage that partially divides a joint cavity at knee, reduces friction (shock absorber)
Bursa: flattened sacs containing synovial fluid, occur where bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles, skin rub together; cushions between bones and tendons

89. Lateral & Medial Meniscus

90. Torn medial meniscus

91. Types of Synovial Joints
Ball-and-socket – shoulder, hip
Condyloid – wrist, knuckle
Gliding – wrist
Hinge – elbow, ankle, fingers
Pivot – ulna/radius
Saddle – thumb

92. Ball-and-Socket Joint
Bone w/ ball shaped head
Articulates w/ cupped shaped cavity of another bone
Wider range of motion than any other joint, including rotation
Ex. Shoulder and hip

93. Condyloid Joint
Oval-shaped condyle of one bone fits into an elliptical cavity of another
Allows a variety of movement in different planes, but no rotation
Ex. Between metacarpals and phalanges

94. Gliding Joint Articulating surfaces of these joints are nearly flat
Allow for a sliding and twisting motion
Ex. Wrist and ankle
Ex. Between articular process of neighboring vertebrae
Ex. Joint between ribs 2-7 and sternum

95. Hinge Joint
A convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another
Movement in one plane only
Ex. Elbow
Ex. Phalanges

96. Pivot Joint
A cylindrical surface of one bone rotates w/ a ring formed of bone and ligament on another
Ex. Radius and Ulna
Ex. Skull and atlas

97. Saddle Joint
Forms between bones whose articulating surfaces have both concave and convex regions
Ex. Metacarpal and Trapezium (thumb movement)

100. Types of Synovial Joints Video

101. Joint Movement
Every skeletal muscle attached to bone or connective tissue at 2+ points
Origin: attached to immovable (less movable) bone
Insertion: attached to movable bone

102. Types of Synovial Joint Movement
Gliding
Angular movements
Rotation

103. 1. Gliding Flat bone slips over another Back-forth, side to side
Eg. Between vertebrae, wrist, ankle

104. 2. Angular Movement Increase or decrease angle between bones Types:
Flexion:  angle between bones (bend knee)
Extension:  angle along sagittal plane, straighten limbs, (unbend knee)
Abduction: “moving away” from midline along frontal plane (spread apart fingers)
Adduction: “move toward” midline (arm moving in)
Circumduction: make “cone” in space (pitcher winding up to throw ball)

105. Flexion:  angle between bones

106. Extension:  angle along sagittal plane, straighten limbs

107. Hyperextension

108. Abduction – Adduction - Circumduction

109. 3. Rotation Turn bone along long axis
Eg. Hip, shoulder, swivel head (C1/C2)

110. Special Movements Radius & Ulna:
Supination: bones are parallel, anatomical position
Sup- = “soup bowl”
Pronation: bones form an X, relaxed position
Pro- = pro-basketball player dribbles

111. Special Movements
Elevation/Depression: and  (shrug, chewing)

112. Special Movements
Foot: inversion (medially)/eversion (laterally)

113. Special Movements
Ankle: dorsiflexion (toes point up)/plantar flexion (toes point down)

114. Special Movements
Jaw: protraction (jut out)/retraction (bring back in)

115. Special Movements
Thumb: opposition (touch to other fingers on hand)

116. Joint Disorders - Rickets
Bone fails to calcify because of a Vitamin D deficiency (called osteomalacia in adults)
Causes:
Poor diet
Kidney disease

117. Joint Disorders - Gout Uric acid accumulation in the joint tissues
Causes inflammation and pain in the joint area
Can be triggered by seafood consumption in those susceptible due to increase in uric acid

118. Joint Disorders – Dislocation and Subluxation
Dislocation - Displacement of the articular surfaces of a joint
Subluxation - Partial dislocation of joint components

119. Joint Disorders - Sprain
Twisting of a joint in which the joint capsule, tendons and muscles can be torn, but dislocation does not occur

120. Joint Disorders - Bursitis
Inflammation of the bursa caused by injury, infection or as a complication of rheumatoid arthritis

121. Joint Disorders - Bunion
Swelling of the bursa in the big toe

122. Joint Disorders - Arthritis
Joint inflammation
Accompanied by pain, swelling, and stiffness
Resulting from infection, trauma, degenerative changes, metabolic disturbances, or other causes
Various forms:
Bacterial arthritis, osteoarthritis, or rheumatoid arthritis

126. Robert Griffin III (RGIII)
Repaired lateral collateral ligament (LCL)
Reconstructed anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) 2nd time

127. Common Knee Injury: Hockey Puck

128. Knee Repair: ACL Surgery
YouTube Video: ACL Surgery

129. Knee Replacements

130. Knee Replacement Surgery
Knee Replacement Surgery (Pre-Op Video)

131. Hip Joint

132. Hip Arthritis

133. Hip Replacements