1. Chapter 11 Introduction to Genetics

2. Scientific study of Heredity

3. Gregor Mendel’s Peas He worked with Garden peas The male part of each flower produces pollen –Contains male sex cells The female part of the flower produces eggs –Female sex cells

4. Gregor Mendel's & Garden Peas

5. Gregor Mendel’s Peas Pollen fertilizes an egg cell and a seed for a new plant is formed Normally reproduce by self- pollination –Pollen fertilizes the egg cells of the same flower –Inherit all of their characteristics from that single plant

6. True Breeding If they were allowed to self-pollinate, they would produce offspring identical to themselves Tall plant would produce tall plants –Short Short –Green Seeds Green Seeds –Yellow Seeds Yellow Seeds

7. True Breeding Pea plants can also Cross- Pollinate –Male sex cells in pollen from the flower on one plant fertilize the egg cells of a flower on another plant –Cross- Pollination have two plants as parents

8. Genes and Dominance Trait –A specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another –Original pair of plants – P(parental) –Off spring F1 or “First filial”

9. Genes and Dominance The off springs of crosses between parents with different traits are called Hybrids To Mendel’s surprise, all of the off spring had the character of only one of the parents In each cross, the character of the other parent seemed to have disappeared

10. Gene and Dominance Mendel’s 1 st conclusion Biological inheritance is determined by factors that are passed from one generation to the next. Chemical factors that determine traits are called Genes Different forms of genes are called Alleles

11. Mendel’s 2 nd Conclusion: The Principle of Dominance –States that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive

12. Segregation (separation) F 2 (second filial) Crossed the F 1 generation with itself to produce the F 2 offspring Gametes – Sex Cells When each F 1 plant flowers, the two alleles are segregated from each other so that each gamete carries single copy of each Gene

13. Segregation Therefore, each F, plant produces two types of gametes- those with the allele for tallness and those with the allele for shortness The likelihood that a particular event will occur is called Probability The principles of Probability can be used to predict the out comes of genetic crosses

14. Segregation

15. Punnett Squares The gene combinations that might result from a genetic cross can be determined by drawing a diagram known as a Punnett Square Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait are Homozygous TT or tt

16. Punnett Squares

17. Organisms that have two different alleles for the same trait are Heterozygous Phenotype – Physical characteristics Genotype – Genetic makeup Mendel’s Ratios:Mendel’s Ratios: –3:1 Phenotypic –1:2:1 Genotypic –The larger the number of individuals, the closer the resulting offspring numbers will get to expected valves

18. Independent Assortment F 1The two- factor cross: F 1 (Genotype RRYY) (Genotype rryy)Mendel crossed true- breeding plants that produced only round yellow peas (Genotype RRYY) with plants that produced wrinkled green peas (Genotype rryy) Offspring produced round yellow peas Shows that the alleles for yellow & round peas are dominant over the alleles for green & wrinkled peas Genotype RrYyGenotype RrYy F 1It provides the hybrid plants needed for the cross of F 1

19. Independent Assortment In Peas

20. Independent Assortment F 2The two- factor cross: F 2 F 1F 1 plants were all heterozygous The alleles for seed shape segregated independently of those for seed color – a principle known as Independent Assortment Genes that segregate independently do not influence each other’s inheritance

21. Principle of Independent Assortment States that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes Mendel’s principles form the base on which modern science of genetics has been built

22. The Inheritance of Biological Characteristics Is determined by individual units known as genes in organisms that reproduce sexually, genes are passed from parents to their offspring In cases in which two or more forms of the gene for a single trait exist some forms of the gene may be dominant and others may be recessive

23. The Inheritance of Biological Characteristics In most sexually reproducing organisms each adult has two copies of each gene – one from each parent. These genes are segregated from each other when gametes are formed. The alleles for different genes usually segregate independently of one another. Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive, and many traits are controlled by multiple alleles or multiple genes

24. Incomplete Dominance Incomplete DominanceCases in which one allele is not completely dominant over another are called Incomplete Dominance The heterozygous phenotype is somewhere in between the two Homozygous Phenotype

25. Incomplete Dominance

26. Codominance Both alleles contribute to the phenotype of the organism Example of Co-dominance is: –Sickle Cell Anemia People with sickle cell anemia have to get 2 copies of the sickle cell gene. The result is abnormally shaped red blood cells that will stick in the blood vessels. Carriers of sickle cell disease, will actually have half of their blood cells sickle shaped and half round because the genes for sickle and round cells are co-dominant. Carriers of sickle cell anemia are generally symptom free

27. Sickle Cell Anemia

28. Multiple Alleles Genes that have more than two alleles Example: Coat color in rabbitsExample: Coat color in rabbits Many other genes have multiple alleles, including the human genes for blood types

29. Polygenic Traits Many traits are produced by the interaction of several genes. Traits controlled by two or more genes are said to be : Polygenic traits – “Having many Genes”

30. Polygenic Traits

31. Thomas Hunt Morgan Wanted to find a model organism to study genetics He wanted an animal that was small, easy to keep in the laboratory, and able to produce large numbers of offspring in a short period of time Common Fruit FlyCommon Fruit Fly Drosophila Melanogaster

32. Thomas Hunt Morgan He could breed a new generation of flies every 14 days Single pair of flies could produce as many as 100 offspring Ideal organism for genetics

33. Meiosis Mendel’s principles of genetics require at least two things 1 st1 st –Each organism must inherit a single copy of every gene from both its “parents” two “parents” two complete sets of genes

35. Phases of Meiosis I

36. Meiosis 2 nd When an organism produces its own gametes, those two sets of genes must be separated from each other so that each gamete contains just one set of genes

37. Phases of Meiosis II

38. Homologous Each of the 4 Chromosomes that came from the male parent has a corresponding chromosome from the female parent –”two sets” Cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes are said to be Diploid –”two sets” represented by 2 n Drosophila – Diploid # is 8 2n=8

39. Meiosis Gametes of sexually reproducing organisms contain only a single set of chromosomes. Haploid Such cells are called Haploid – “One Set” Drosophila N=4

40. Meiosis process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of Homologous Chromosomes in a Diploid Cell Two Distinct Phases: –1 st Meiotic Division Meiosis I –2 nd Meiotic Division Meiosis II

41. Meiosis I Looks similar to mitosis Prophase of Meiosis, each chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosomes to form a Tetrad Tetrad 4 Chromatids in a Tetrad Exchange portions of their chromatids in a process called Crossing- Over Results in the exchange of alleles between homologous chromosomes and produces new combinations of alleles Homologous chromosomes separate, two new cells are formed

42. Meiosis I Tetrads Crossing Over

43. Meiosis II Second Meiotic division Neither cell goes through a round of chromosome replication Metaphase II of Meiosis, –2 Chromosomes line up in the center of each cell Anaphase II –the paired chromatids separate each of the four daughter cells produced in Meiosis II receives 2 chromatids

44. Meiosis II Those 4 daughter cells now contain the haploid number (n) just 2 chromosomes each In Male animals, the Haploid gametes are called Sperm in plants, it is Pollen In Female animals the gametes is an Egg

45. Meiosis II The other 3 cells produced in the female during meiosis are known as Polar Bodies and do not participate in reproduction Mitosis results in the production of two (2) genetically identical Diploid Cells, whereas Meiosis produces four (4) genetically different Haploid Cells

46. Phases of Meiosis I & II

47. Chapter 11 Questions 1.During which phase of Meiosis would you expect to find the formation of a Tetrad? 2. What is Self- Pollination? 3. What is a Hybrid? 4.What does the Principle of Dominances state? 5.What does the postulate of Segregation state?

48. Chapter 11 Questions 6. What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous? 7. What is the difference between genotype and phenotype? 8. How does the Principle of Independent Assortment affect a dihybrid cross? (RrTt x RrTt) 9. What is the difference in Incomplete Dominance and Codominance? Give Examples-Explain!!!!!

49. Chapter 11 Questions 10. What is the difference in Multiple Alleles and Polygenic traits? (Give Examples- Explain!!!) 11. What does Homologous mean? 12.What is the difference in the haploid# and the diploid#? 13. What is Crossing Over?

50. Chapter 11 Questions 14. What is the difference in the 1 st Meiotic Division and the 2 nd Meiotic Division? 15. List the events and phases of both Meiosis I & II. 16. What is the difference in results between Mitosis & Meiosis?