2. Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill Algorithms From the Mathematical Perspective

3. Copyright © 2005-2011 Curt Hill What is an algorithm? Algorithm: A prescribed set of well defined rules and processes for solving a problem in a finite number of steps Prescribed: known in advance Well defined: unambiguous, clear Finite: always ends Not every program implements an algorithm, but most do

4. Properties An algorithm should demonstrate several properties: Input – they take some type of input data Output – they produce some answer Definiteness – each step is unambiguously defined Correctness – a correct algorithm produces correct results for each set of input values Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

5. More Properties Finiteness – always finishes in a finite number of steps –Finite may be large –Recall the halting problem Effectiveness - it must be possible to perform each step exactly in a finite amount of time Generality – it should solve the problem for any set of inputs, not just a particular set –We are allowed to limit input domains Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

6. Expression How do we represent an algorithm? Almost every program implements an algorithm –We do not necessarily want to learn each programming language Choose a standard language –ACM chose ALGOL as their standard –Before that FORTRAN was common Other possibilities exist Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

7. Pseudo Code The book, among others, has chosen pseudo code This has greater precision than natural language yet we do not worry about the syntactical details of a real programming language The book’s choice looks much like Pascal, which is also a descendent of ALGOL Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

8. Rules(?) of Pseudo code –No need to declare variables, except in procedure headers –No need for ; to terminate or separate a statement –Usually one statement per line –Indentation is significant –Assignment statement uses := –Reserved words are bold –An if statement has a then or then and else –Simplified for and while syntax –Comments in braces Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

9. Example Find maximum element in sequence: procedure max(a 1, a 2, …a n : integer) max := a 1 {Assignment on name} for i=2 to n if max < a i then max := a i return max {All done} Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

10. Searching Something we do a lot of in Computer Science We have a collection of items We want to find whether a given one exists in the collection Sometimes we search for a key and want the associated data –Account number and account information Other times just to see if the value exists – such as set membership Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

11. Two Searches A linear search looks sequentially through a sequence of values –The search length is proportional to the number of items A binary search looks through a sorted sequence of values –This works much faster Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

12. Linear Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill procedure linear search(x:integer, a 1, a 2, …,a n : distinct integers) i := 1 while (i ≤ n and x ≠ a i ) i := i + 1 if i ≤ n then location := i else location := 0 return location{location is the subscript of the term that equals x, or is 0 if x is not found}

13. Binary Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill procedure binary search(x: integer, a 1,a 2,…, a n : increasing integers) i := 1 {i is the left endpoint of interval} j := n {j is right endpoint of interval} while i < j m := ⌊ (i + j)/2 ⌋ if x > a m then i := m + 1 else j := m if x = a i then location := i else location := 0 return location{location is the subscript i of the term a i equal to x, or 0 if x is not found}

14. Sorting Another extremely important operation Put a sequence into ascending or descending order Look at two here Bubble Insertion Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

15. Copyright © 2003-2011 Curt Hill Bubble Sort Basic idea Start at top Compare adjacent elements Exchange if out of order Repeat until a pass has no exchanges See the text for pseudo code

16. Copyright © 2003-2011 Curt Hill First Pass 8 3 1 9 14 2 6 8 3 1 9 2 6 Small items bubble up slowly –One element per pass Large items sink quickly –Keep descending until they find a larger item or hit bottom 8 3 1 9 14 2 6 8 3 1 9 2 6

17. Commentary The book uses two for loops This is not the best approach However, the bubble sort is perhaps the worst sort in existence The only thing it should be ever considered for is a sequence where there are only slight disorderings Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

18. Copyright © 2003-2011 Curt Hill Insertion Sort Partition the array into two pieces The first one and all the rest The first part of the array is already sorted Remove the first unsorted item Insert into the correct location of the sorted part

19. Copyright © 2003-2011 Curt Hill How it works 8 3 1 9 14 2 6 Sorted part of array Unsorted part of array 8 1 9 14 2 6 3 Remove 3 8 1 9 14 2 6 3 Insert

20. Greedy Algorithms There are a number of situations where we want to find an optimal solution –Usually a maximum of minimum There are typically several parameters, that is values that can be changed Exhaustively searching every combination of every parameter is typically prohibitive Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

21. How do they work? Start at some point –All parameters to function have an arbitrary or given value Look one step in every direction –Vary each parameter by a small increment Choose the one that gives the best results and return to the first step with new values Quit when no more improvement may be made Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

22. Discussion There must be a readily available function that produces a measure of the goodness of the solution The results may be optimal or not depending on the type of problem As the algorithm homes in on the problem the step size may be adjusted Next we will consider the change problem giving the fewest coins Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

23. Change Suppose we have to give change The amount required is in the range 1 to 99 cents We wish to give the fewest coins We have the normal coins: quarters, dimes, nickels and pennies Our function takes the count of each coin and the original change amount and returns how much change is left to be given Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

24. Greed is good The starting point is no coins are given – fours counts of zero We next look at four steps: incrementing each coin We choose the one that gives us the smallest value that not negative This is our best step – next go to the beginning with adjusted parameters Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

25. Example Suppose that the amount is 78 cents We try one of each coin and find that the quarter gets us to 53 We try one of each again and find that the quarter gets us to 28 We try one of each again and find that the quarter gets us to 3 Now the quarter, dime and nicket sends us negative, but 1 penny gets us to 2, which we repeat twice more Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

26. Commentary This is a simple with an easy solution A similar program was shown in 127/160 that solves this optimally but is not a classis greedy However, greedy solutions work in much more complicated environments where the correct path is not know in advance The book also observes that if nickels are not available this algorithm will not necessarily be optimal Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

27. The Halting Problem This is important because of the finite number of steps requirement of an algorithm That it is unsolvable shows absolute limitations to static analysis –What can be seen without running a program –It also proves the existence of unsolvable problems We saw the proof in chapter 1 presentations Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill

28. Exercises 3, 7, 19, 35, 53, 55 Copyright © 2014 Curt Hill