2. The bcc Refractory Metals
From the table of Tmax temperatures – the bcc refractory metals provide the only option for high temperature applications between oC
Nb Tmax =1210 oC Tm = 2742 oC
Ta Tmax = 1375 oC Tm = 3293 oC
W Tmax = 1390 oC Tm = 3695 oC
Mo Tmax = 1460 oC Tm = 2896 oC
The temperature, Tmax is a temperature at which the material can maintain a stress of 69 MPa (10 ksi) for a period of 100 h without fracturing.

3. Tungsten Alloys
Tungsten (W) has the highest melting point temperature of all the metals – which is the basis of its use for filaments for incandescent light bulbs – as cathodes in electronic and X-ray tubes – and as electrodes for welding and other arc sources
In common with other refractory bcc metals – W reacts with oxygen at high temperatures – but it is unique in not absorbing or reacting with hydrogen – and can thus be treated in a hydrogen (reducing) atmosphere

4. Tungsten Alloys
The recrystallization temperature of W is raised by fine dispersions of aluminum-potassium silicate and thoria (ThO2) – but the later must be used with care – as it is mildly radioactive!
W light bulb filaments use ThO2 to prevent grain boundary sliding, which significantly extends their lifetime.
Why is recrystallization temperature important?

5. Tungsten Alloys
W is strengthened by alloying with Rhenium, Re – which raises its recrystallization temperature and hence its high temperature rupture strength
Re also lowers the ductile-brittle transition temperature of W – so that compacts formed by powder metallurgy can be cold drawn into wire – or cold rolled into sheet
The prime high temperature use of these tungsten alloys is for supports and radiation shields for furnaces
Thermocouples of W-3Re and W-25Re have also been developed for use at temperatures up to 2000 oC – in protected atmospheres

6. Tungsten Due to its high mass density
– W is usually not considered to be a good material for moving components in heat engines
- Because W has a bcc crystal structure, it does not work harden. Why might this be?

7. Specific Strength of bcc Refractory Alloys
A comparison of the specific strength (ultimate strength/mass density) – (lbs.in-2/lbs.in-3 = in) for refractory alloys shows:
Ta-based alloys have the lowest specific strength at all temperatures
Nb-based alloys have intermediate specific strength at all temperatues
Mo is the strongest at temperatures between oC – and hence shows the best potential for raising the temperature of gas turbines
Thoriated W becomes the strongest at temperatures above 1500 oC – which is beyond present designs for input temperatures for gas turbines

8. Specific Strength of bcc Refractory Alloys
Phase change for Nb

9. Tungsten – New Application as Penetrators
Penetrators used for defense purposes consisted of depleted Uranium-0.75Ti alloy and U2O3, which have small amounts of radioactive Uranium.
U was used because of it high atomic weight, which gives a strong impact when it hits the target as a penetrator.
Upon hitting the target, the penetrator explodes giving off a fine dust that escapes into the environment making it radioactive
Afterwards combat forces must either wait for the dust to blow away or enter the battle ground with special gear, however, even so, the troops are exposed to radioactivity, which is not desired.

10. W-based Penetrators
What is desired by the defense industry is a penetrator with equal or better performance to replace U-based alloys
W has a slightly higher density than U, 19.3 g/cm3 vs 18.9 g/cm3.
A high density is required for transferring impact force.

11. W-based Penetrators
At the US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Grounds, the Ballistic Research Laboratory tested W’s ballistic properties versus Uranium’s.
Single crystal W penetrators having orientations of [100], [110] and [111] were made to test their penetration ability by firing into semi-infinite steel blocks, standard armor material.
Their performance were compared to the standard U penetrators, U-0.75Ti alloy, with the following results (next slide)

12. W-based Penetrators
Tungsten single crystal orientations

13. W-based Penetrators
The W-based penetrators performed poorer than the U-0.75Ti alloy in the [110] and [111] single crystal orientations but were slightly superior in the [100].
To understand why, metallography, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and x-ray diffraction analysis were used to study the resulting microstructures.
Why did the [100]-oriented penetrator perform the best?
The metallography showed that the penetrators undergo extrusion and deposition of their material from the tip of the penetrator around to the sides of the hole that is created.

14. Extrusion Structures of W- Penetrators
Penetration
Direction
Single crystal
orientation
[111]
[110]
[100]
Penetration
Direction

15. W-based Penetrators Summary of W-material deposition on cavity wall
The [111]-oriented penetratror had a feathery-structured material deposition on the walls and a broad nose (mushroomed), which indicated large-energy and high-temperature deposition.
The [110]-oriented penetrator had an uneven material deposition, some thin and some thin areas, and a broad nose which indicated a cork-screw deposition mechanism that would require large-energy useage.
The [100] penetrator, which penetrator the furthest, had an even-layer material deposition and a pointed nose, which indicated a low-energy, efficient mechanism of material deposition.

16. W-based Penetrators
A small amount of penetrator material was left at the end of the penetration depth.
The structures were as follows.

17. W-based Penetrators
The residual penetrator material at the end of the hole showed:
For [111] – a mushroom shape
For [110] – a tilted-orientation
For [100] – a symmetric orientation
Why?
[110]
orienta-
tion
[111]
[110]
[100]

18. W-based Penetrators
In addition, the [100]-penetrator was broken into small crystals blocks made from cracks having <100>{001} that were flowing from the tip around to the sides.

19. W-based Penetrators
Mass transport from the tip to the cavity sides was mainly by dislocations and the only mechanism for the [111] and [110] penetrators.
The mechanism for mass transport of the [100] penetrator was by both dislocations and small crystals, which were formed by the dislocations as we will see.
The deformation mechanism was determined by electron microscopy as follows.

20. Initially the W penetrators were single crystals.
Due to deformation, dislocations interacted to form low-angle grain boundaries, which enabled mass transport of the material.
Optically these appeared as shear bands on the surface of the material.

21. The dislocations were determined for their Burgers vectors and habit planes by examining the contrast of the dislocations A, B, C and D at various W crystal-electron beam orientations (<hkl>{u,v,w}), as seen in the micrographs.

22. W-based Penetrators Recrystallized grains More dislocations structures
What is the deformation slip system for bcc W?

23. Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS)
We can determine the deformation behaviour in materials using Schmid’s Law, which takes into account the orientation of an applied force and the possible slip directions and slip planes.
The unidirectional stress, s, applied to the cylinder and its resolved shear stress, t, in the slip direction is given by:

24. W-based Penetrators There are no close packed planes in BCC materials.
The major slip system in W is <111>{110}.
A minor system is <111>{112}.
Another possibility is <111>{113}

25. W-based Penetrators The CRSS analysis determined:
for [100] penetrator, 4 major slip systems were found to be operating during the deformation,
for [111] penetrator, 3 major slip systems were found to be operating during the deformation and,
for [110] penetrator, 2 major slip systems were found to be operating during the deformation.
The more slip systems operative, the easier and more efficient the mass transport.

26. W-based Penetrators Critical resolved shear stress, CRSS = cosg x cosq
The CRSS determined for [100], [111] and [110] orientations. Note that CRSS is zero for 90 degrees applied stress.

27. Dislocations, what else!
W-based Penetrators
Mass transport for the [100] penetrator was the most efficient because it occurred not only by dislocations but also by the flow of small crystals.
What could be the mechanism for the creation of the cracks to form the small crystals?
Dislocations, what else!

28. W-based Penetrators
Small crystals formed by a [100] crack formation mechanism from the following dislocation slip system:
This dislocation mechanism requires a much larger energy to form because its Burgers vector, B=ao[001] is much larger than the dislocations having B=ao/2[111].
Evidence by TEM supports this mechanism.
Note that the habit plane of the dislocations forming cracks is (001) and not the (011) or (021).

29. W-based Penetrators
The formation of the crack on the {001} by the interaction of b = <111> dislocations on the {011}.

30. Formation of Small W Crystals
The cracks formed by dislocations having B=ao[001] on the {001}:
1) enable cubic crystals to be formed from the 6 surfaces having cracks
2) the small cubes of material haven’t deformed and slide past each other during the mass transfer from the tip to the sides of the penetrator
3) enable less energy for the deformation
The more slip systems operative, the easier and more efficient the mass transport.

31. Summary
From this landmark work, W-based penetrators have replaced U-based penetrators since they can penetrate steel armor as well as and sometimes better than U-based penetrators.
This work was the landmark project that changed the penetrator material from Urania to Tungsten.
W-based penetrators solved the contamination problem of radioactivity of the battle field.

32. The End Any questions or comments?

33. W-based Penetrators
The interaction of two ao/2<111>{011} dislocations to form a B=ao[001] dislocation on the (001).