1. Old English An example: let’s find all the features of Old English in the following text

2. Beowulf (Prologue), ca. 1000 AD Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum, þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon, hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, egsode eorlas. Syððan ærest wearð feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad, weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah, oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra ofer hronrade hyran scolde, gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning! Listen! We of the Spear-Danes in days of yore Of those folk-kings the glory have heard, How those noblemen brave-things did. Often Scyld, son of Scef, from enemy hosts from many people mead-benches took, terrorized warriors. After first he was helpless found, he knew the recompense for that, grew under the sky, in honours thrived, until to him each of the neighbouring tribes over the whale-road had to submit, tribute yield. That was a good king!

3. Beowulf opening lines https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzmmPR G4smU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzmmPR G4smU

4. Examples of linguistic features hwæt -- interrogative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of who, what ðā -- definite article; nominative plural of the -- the þēodcyninga -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of lit. people-king -- of folk-kings funden -- strong verb, class III; past participle of find -- found oft -- adverb often, frequently -- often scolde -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class IV; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of shall, ought to -- had to hwæt -- interrogative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of who, what ðā -- definite article; nominative plural of the -- the þēodcyninga -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of lit. people-king -- of folk-kings funden -- strong verb, class III; past participle of find -- found oft -- adverb often, frequently -- often scolde -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class IV; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of shall, ought to -- had to

5. Middle English

6. The Norman Conquest The conventional starting point of the ME period is the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 (battle of Hastings) Who were the Normans? They descended from the Danish Vikings who had occupied northern France. They soon started speaking French and converted to Christianity Why did they land in England? The reason for the Norman invasion was manly political

7. The Norman Conquest: reasons  In 1066 the Saxon king Edward, known as “the Confessor”, died without an heir  Harold, of Saxon origins, was chosen to be king  Duke William of Normandy challenged Harold’s right to the English throne, claiming that Edward had promised it to him  The Danish Vikings, who controlled England before Edward, also claimed their right to the throne and attacked northern Yorkshire, but they were defeated by Harold  Soon afterwards, the Normans landed in the south of England; they were better equipped, organised and were mounted on horses  Harold was defeated and killed in battle near Hastings

8. The Bayeux tapestry

9. The animated Bayeux Tapestry: imagining the battle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtGoBZ4 D4_E https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtGoBZ4 D4_E

10. The Middle English period Language historians distinguish three stages for ME: A transitional stage (1066-1150) An early ME period (1150-1350) A late ME period (1350-1430) Language historians distinguish three stages for ME: A transitional stage (1066-1150) An early ME period (1150-1350) A late ME period (1350-1430)

11. Transitional stage (1066-1150) The Norman conquest reduced the role and functions of West- Saxon Main evidence for language maintenance is the continuation of the Anglo-Saxon literary tradition  religious prose of Ælfric and Wulfstan, which was copied, read and interpreted in monasteries Transitional stage (1066-1150) The Norman conquest reduced the role and functions of West- Saxon Main evidence for language maintenance is the continuation of the Anglo-Saxon literary tradition  religious prose of Ælfric and Wulfstan, which was copied, read and interpreted in monasteries Early ME period: English gradually recovered it status of official language  legal documents and literary writing 1215 The Magna Charta Libertatum (in Latin) or the Great Charter, which was an attempt to limit the power of the king and a crucial stage in the collapse of English feudalism Early ME period: English gradually recovered it status of official language  legal documents and literary writing 1215 The Magna Charta Libertatum (in Latin) or the Great Charter, which was an attempt to limit the power of the king and a crucial stage in the collapse of English feudalism Late ME period Urbanisation: growth of London Rising of the middle class: need for literacy Introduction of the print: 1476 by William Caxton  standard language The Canterbury Tales by G. Chaucer (end of 14 the century) Late ME period Urbanisation: growth of London Rising of the middle class: need for literacy Introduction of the print: 1476 by William Caxton  standard language The Canterbury Tales by G. Chaucer (end of 14 the century)

12. The Normans For you to watch at home: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZ0Ny0jT iGc&list=PLKhsNALWkeBIiFnxPv7rsSpQBSFmfE Y0O&index=2 For you to watch at home: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZ0Ny0jT iGc&list=PLKhsNALWkeBIiFnxPv7rsSpQBSFmfE Y0O&index=2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7SX3ulV _tk&list=PLKhsNALWkeBIiFnxPv7rsSpQBSFmfE Y0O https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7SX3ulV _tk&list=PLKhsNALWkeBIiFnxPv7rsSpQBSFmfE Y0O

13. Linguistic features of ME reduction of the case system in particular in nouns and adjectives paradigm levelling: re-adjustment within the case ending system aiming at regularising language forms. development of the future with shall/will and the present progressive introduction of the pronoun “she/shoe” increasingly fixed word order, with some variation French (e.g. “marry” from “marier”) and Latin (e.g. “inferior”) influence on vocabulary reduction of the case system in particular in nouns and adjectives paradigm levelling: re-adjustment within the case ending system aiming at regularising language forms. development of the future with shall/will and the present progressive introduction of the pronoun “she/shoe” increasingly fixed word order, with some variation French (e.g. “marry” from “marier”) and Latin (e.g. “inferior”) influence on vocabulary

14. Paradigm levelling

15. Adjectives Loss of case, gender and number distinctions as a consequence of paradigm levelling By the end of the ME period, the distinction between strong and weak adjectives was lost Only two main forms were used: a basic form and an –e ending form for adjectives ending with a consonant E.g. fair/faire – in attributive position for adjectives modifying plural nouns: longe nyghtes (PDE long nights) – after determiners: this goode wyf (PDE this good wife)

16. Determiners and pronouns The process of levelling also affected determiners OE sē, sēo, þæt (sing.), þa (pl.)  ME þe (sing. and pl.) Pronouns did not undergo major changes during the ME period, apart from the introduction of the 3 rd person sing. fem: she/shoe (PDE she)

17. Verbs The distinction between strong and weak forms remained Innovative aspects: – Future meanings: schal (PDE shall) + infinitive wil (PDE will) + infinitive (late ME) – Passive voice: OE passive: auxiliaries bēon (PDE to be) and weorðan (PDE to become)  ME passive: ben < OE: bēon E.g. He […] wæs wæl underfangen fram þe pape Eugenie (PDE He was well received by Pope Eugenius)

18. Word order The process of paradigm levelling influenced word order, which in OE was free In late ME (c. 14 th century) the order mostly followed the SVO pattern  statements - main and dependent clauses E.g. Verray luf (S) clensen (V) þe saule (O) … (PDE True love cleans the soul…)

19. Vocabulary French Vocabulary Administration: government, treaty, royal, property, accuse, office, court, crown, marry General vocabulary: people, age, country, flower, large, lesson Religion: confession, prayer, abbey, tempt Latin Vocabulary it was the language of the Church, scholarly knowledge and, to a minor extent, law: diocese, psalm, requiem, redemptor, testify, legitimate, custody, intellect, project, subscribe

20. Living animal vs meat Anglo-saxon origin Pig Calf Cow Deer Sheep Snail Pig Calf Cow Deer Sheep Snail French origin Pork Veal Beef Venison Mutton Escargot Pork Veal Beef Venison Mutton Escargot

21. From Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales (1476) Middle English: Thanne were ther yonge povre scolers two, That dwelten in this halle, of which I seye. PDE: Then there were two young poor scholars, Who dwelt in this hall, of which I tell.

22. The Canterbury Tales (Prologue) Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour, Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the Ram his halve cours yronne, And smale foweles maken melodye, That slepen al the nyght with open ye (so priketh hem Nature in hir corages), Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes, To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; And specially from every shires ende Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir for to seke, That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke. Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour, Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the Ram his halve cours yronne, And smale foweles maken melodye, That slepen al the nyght with open ye (so priketh hem Nature in hir corages), Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes, To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; And specially from every shires ende Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir for to seke, That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.

23. When April with his showers sweet with fruit The drought of March has pierced unto the root And bathed each vein with liquor that has power To generate therein and sire the flower; When Zephyr also has, with his sweet breath, Quickened again, in every holt and heath, The tender shoots and buds, and the young sun Into the Ram one half his course has run, And many little birds make melody That sleep through all the night with open eye (So Nature pricks them on to ramp and rage)- Then do folk long to go on pilgrimage, And palmers to go seeking out strange strands, To distant shrines well known in sundry lands. And specially from every shire's end Of England they to Canterbury wend, The holy blessed martyr there to seek Who helped them when they lay so ill and weak. When April with his showers sweet with fruit The drought of March has pierced unto the root And bathed each vein with liquor that has power To generate therein and sire the flower; When Zephyr also has, with his sweet breath, Quickened again, in every holt and heath, The tender shoots and buds, and the young sun Into the Ram one half his course has run, And many little birds make melody That sleep through all the night with open eye (So Nature pricks them on to ramp and rage)- Then do folk long to go on pilgrimage, And palmers to go seeking out strange strands, To distant shrines well known in sundry lands. And specially from every shire's end Of England they to Canterbury wend, The holy blessed martyr there to seek Who helped them when they lay so ill and weak.

24. The Canterbury Tales (General Prologue) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QE0MtE NfOMU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QE0MtE NfOMU

25. Etymology flower (n.) c.1200, flour, also flur, flor, floer, floyer, flowre, "the blossom of a plant; a flowering plant," from Old French flor "flower, blossom; heyday, prime; fine flour; elite; innocence, virginity" (12c., Modern French fleur), from Latin florem (nominative flos) "flower" (source of Italian fiore, Spanish flor; compare flora). From late 14c. in English as "blossoming time," also, figuratively, "prime of life, height of one's glory or prosperity, state of anything that may be likened to the flowering state of a plant." As "the best, the most excellent; the best of its class or kind; embodiment of an ideal," early 13c. (of persons, mid-13c. of things); for example flour of milk "cream" (early 14c.); especially "wheat meal after bran and other coarse elements have been removed, the best part of wheat" (mid-13c.). Modern spelling and full differentiation from flour (n.) is from late 14c. flower (n.)floraflour

26. Old English and Middle English: Overview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hdn- gwLgj80 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hdn- gwLgj80

27. Modern English

28. Major historical/cultural events in the Modern English period (1500 – c.1900) The Reformation: first half of the 16 th century  Church of England and Act of Supremacy (1534) Queen Elizabeth I established the power of Britain on the seas The English Civil War Great flourishing of the theatre and literature (William Shakespeare - baptised 26 April 1564 and died 23 April 1616, 1611 King James’ Authorized Version of the Bible in English)

29. The Reformation Separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church Henry VIII (1491-1547) wanted to control the power of the Church for two main reasons: – Political: He was not powerful enough to influence the pope  France and Spain were far more powerful – Economic: The taxes paid to the Church were reducing his income – Personal: He wanted to divorce from the catholic Catherine of Aragon d In 1531 Henry persuaded the bishops to make him head of the Church of England  law with the Supremacy Act (1534) Separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church Henry VIII (1491-1547) wanted to control the power of the Church for two main reasons: – Political: He was not powerful enough to influence the pope  France and Spain were far more powerful – Economic: The taxes paid to the Church were reducing his income – Personal: He wanted to divorce from the catholic Catherine of Aragon d In 1531 Henry persuaded the bishops to make him head of the Church of England  law with the Supremacy Act (1534)

30. Queen Elizabeth  Trade: the most important foreign policy matter  England’s enemy: Spain, England’s greatest trade rival  Two policies followed by the Queen: 1.To encourage English sailors, John Hawkins and Francis Drake, to attack and destroy Spanish ships (e.g. the defeat of the Spanish Armada) 2.To encourage English traders to settle abroad and create colonies  Britain’s colonial empire of the 17 th and 18 th centuries

31. The English Civil War The conflict originated from the long-lasting dispute between the king, Charles I, who insisted that he ruled by “divine right”, and the Parliament The Parliament was supported by the navy, by most of the merchants and by the population of London  they controlled the most important national and international sources of wealth The king had no way of raising money, so many of his soldiers, who were unpaid, run away and the Royalist army was defeated in 1645. King Charles was beheaded in 1649. Republican Britain  1649-1658 ruled by gentleman farmer Oliver Cromwell The Republic was over in 1660 when the army invited Charles II to return to his kingdom

33. The British Empire

34. Food for thought Henry VIII: http://www.biography.com/people/henry- viii-9335322/videos/henry-viii-did-you-know- 18242627937 Henry VIII: http://www.biography.com/people/henry- viii-9335322/videos/henry-viii-did-you-know- 18242627937 Queen Elizabeth: http://www.biography.com/people/queen-elizabeth-i- 9286133/videos/elizabeth-i-mini-biography- 126123587975 Queen Elizabeth: http://www.biography.com/people/queen-elizabeth-i- 9286133/videos/elizabeth-i-mini-biography- 126123587975 Terms coined by Shakespeare: http://digg.com/video/everyday-terms-coined-by- shakespeare Terms coined by Shakespeare: http://digg.com/video/everyday-terms-coined-by- shakespeare Shakespeare original pronunciation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9s

35. Origins of standard ModEngl  South-eastern midland variety of English (London area in the 15 th century) underwent a process of selection and acceptance thanks to the positive attitudes of speakers  The language of the “powerful” emerging urban upper- middle class  English supplanted French and Latin in domains such as government, law, religion, literature and education  Further reflections: http://public.oed.com/aspects-of- english/english-in-time/early-modern-english-an- overview/http://public.oed.com/aspects-of- english/english-in-time/early-modern-english-an- overview/

36. Language awareness and linguistic debate The most prestigious variety of English needed to be further elaborated and codified to achieve functional efficiency and to increase its expressive power Need to create new words Two main processes of word formation: – Loans from French and Latin: Neologisers – Expansion of native vocabulary through affixation: Purists

37. Neologisms and loan words French: domicile, industry, consume, elegant, decision, intuition, pioneer, class, role, brigade, brochure, liqueur, envelope, civilisation, dentist, regime, at your service, in particular, in detail, do me a favour Latin: dismiss, instruct, inspector, hostile, permit, popular, produce, genius, premium, equilibrium, data, agenda, pendulum, nebula, stimulus, nucleus, inertia, propaganda, bonus French: domicile, industry, consume, elegant, decision, intuition, pioneer, class, role, brigade, brochure, liqueur, envelope, civilisation, dentist, regime, at your service, in particular, in detail, do me a favour Latin: dismiss, instruct, inspector, hostile, permit, popular, produce, genius, premium, equilibrium, data, agenda, pendulum, nebula, stimulus, nucleus, inertia, propaganda, bonus

38. Purists and affixation Prefixation: – Un-: adjectives: unfit, uncomfortable, unfashionable, uncritical; nouns: uncharity, unsuccess, unsatisfaction, unconcern. – Non-: non-ability, non-appearance, non-graduated, non- user – In-: inanimate, incivility, incompetence – Dis-: discontent, disadvantageous, dissimilar, disfavour – A-: atheological, asymmetric, asymbolic Suffixation: – -ers: preggers Prefixation: – Un-: adjectives: unfit, uncomfortable, unfashionable, uncritical; nouns: uncharity, unsuccess, unsatisfaction, unconcern. – Non-: non-ability, non-appearance, non-graduated, non- user – In-: inanimate, incivility, incompetence – Dis-: discontent, disadvantageous, dissimilar, disfavour – A-: atheological, asymmetric, asymbolic Suffixation: – -ers: preggers

39. The need for a standard language: glossaries and dictionaries John Florio’s Italian-English dictionary, Queen Anna’s New World of Words (1611) Samuel Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) – “preserve the purity and ascertain the meaning of our English idiom […] one great end of this undertaking is to fix the English language”

40. The need for a standard language Why the need to “fix the English language”? English remained a highly diverse language with many inconsistencies: o Regional English: Yorkshire accents, Devon accents, Welsh accents, Irish accents, Scots accents – even occasional Yankee (American) accents o There were the so-called “r-less” dialects of English alongside “r-full” dialects. o There was th-fronting: [f] for th. e.g. nuffin for ‘nothing’ and wif for ’with’. o Interchangeable use of the graphemes and in words such as every/euery and under/vunder o The irregular use of the verb to do in interrogative and negative sentences: e.g. I look not forward…or How came you to make such a mistake as this?

41. Improvement for grammar and codification Latin was the main model for the improvement of grammar and the codification of forms Robert Lowth’s A Short Introduction to English Grammar: with Critical Notes (1762)  linguistic correctness and good usage Prescriptive grammar condemning uses such as: – an’t (PDE ain’t) for am/are/is not; – Double negation – The split infinitive: to quickly put an end to the controversy

42. Received Pronunciation During the early stages of ModEngl the notion of “proper” pronunciation was still not in vogue 19 th century: pronunciation became standardised and known as Received Pronunciation (RP)  thanks to a universal educational system RP became a very strong marker of social class During the early stages of ModEngl the notion of “proper” pronunciation was still not in vogue 19 th century: pronunciation became standardised and known as Received Pronunciation (RP)  thanks to a universal educational system RP became a very strong marker of social class

43. Linguistic features Nouns and adjectives: by the end of the ModEngl period the distinction between strong and weak forms disappeared – Nouns: The only grammatical case that survived was the genitive singular marked with –s ending In the 18 th century the use of ‘s became regular as a way to distinguish genitive from plural – Adjectives: OE and ME inflectional systems only survived for comparative and superlative forms –er and –est: e.g. longer/longest Pronouns: the most conservative part of speech which preserves case, number and gender. – Difference from PDE: 2 nd pers. sing. thou/thee (lack of formality) vs. ye/you (politeness)  lost by the end of the 19 th century Nouns and adjectives: by the end of the ModEngl period the distinction between strong and weak forms disappeared – Nouns: The only grammatical case that survived was the genitive singular marked with –s ending In the 18 th century the use of ‘s became regular as a way to distinguish genitive from plural – Adjectives: OE and ME inflectional systems only survived for comparative and superlative forms –er and –est: e.g. longer/longest Pronouns: the most conservative part of speech which preserves case, number and gender. – Difference from PDE: 2 nd pers. sing. thou/thee (lack of formality) vs. ye/you (politeness)  lost by the end of the 19 th century

44. Verbs Verbs: the distinction between strong and weak remained but the inflectional system was further reduced Present indicative: – 1 st pers. sing: -Ø – 2 nd pers. sing.: -est (-es, -t). E.g. thou knowest, thou glimpses, thou shalt – 3 rd pers. sing. was –eth, (-e)s, (Ø). E.g. With her, that hateth thee and hates vs all (Shakespeare, Henry VI) – Plural, all forms: -Ø (-en, -eth, -es) Past indicative: – 1 st pers. sing: -Ø – 2 nd pers. sing.: -(e)st. E.g. thou workedst (weak)/thou saidst (strong) – 3 rd pers. sing: -Ø – Plural, all forms: -Ø (-en)

45. Subjunctive: – Singular, all forms: -Ø – Plural, all forms: -Ø (-en) Participle: – Present: -ing – Past: -ed/-e(n): hated (weak), written (strong) The new verbs which were introduced by borrowing of by word formation were almost all weak Many forms with both weak and strong paradigms were in use. The verbs which in OE were strong and which in PDE are weak had both forms as alternatives in ModEngl. E.g. PDE climb, climbed, climbed < ModEngl climb, clamb, clom/climbed, climbed

46. Word Order The further reduction of the inflectional system strengthened the tendency to use the SVO pattern However, there remained some syntactic structures which make ModEngl different from PDE: – VS, in declarative sentences. E.g. Now comes in the sweetest Morsell of the night… – Multiple negation. E.g. I cannot go no further – Repetition of the subject. E.g. King Philip, whan he harde that his sonne Alexander… – Omission of the subject (esp. in questions with the pronoun thou). E.g. Ah! What art [thou], who thus maliciously hast awakned me? (Congrave, The Old Batchelor)

47. Shakespeare, Sonnet 18: comparison with 1609 Quarto Version

48. How did English evolve? A little experiment A Hearty welcome VS A cordial reception https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kIzFz9T5rhI

49. Present Day English

50. The four main periods of English Old English (700-1100 c.) ● fully inflected ● free word order ● Germanic vocabulary Middle English (1100-1500) ● reduced inflection ● increasingly fixed word order ● French influence on vocabulary Modern English (1500-1900) ● very limited inflection ● greater use of fixed word order ● codification of language Present-day English (1900- nowdays) ● language spread and differentiation ● formation of new varieties worldwide ● English as a global lingua franca

51. The diaspora of English What is meant by “diaspora of English”? The progressive spread of English worldwide The process started in the 5 th century with the Anglo-Saxons and is still ongoing English  Englishes Implication for English Linguistics: – Since the beginning of the 20 th century: “English”  British varieties. Focus on language norms and standard – Mid 1980s: “Englishes”  language use beyond national (UK) borders. Focus on linguistic variation

52. Three stages in the diaspora of English The first stage: the expansion of English within the British Islands The second stage: English in British colonies in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa The third stage: American imperialism and globalisation

53. Language contact: English as Lingua Franca Pidgins: They are reduced in structures and specialized in functions (typically trade), and initially they served as linguae francae to users who preserved their native vernaculars – Expanded pidgins: in urban settings, some pidgins have expanded into regular vernaculars. E.g. Nigerian pidgin English Creoles: They are regular vernaculars deriving from English and spoken by descendants of non-Europeans. They are spoken in former areas of sugar cane plantations or rice fields (non-European slaves). E.g. Hawaiian Creole English From jargon > pidgin > creole? Today this “life-cycle” is disputed by various other competing hypotheses Pidgins: They are reduced in structures and specialized in functions (typically trade), and initially they served as linguae francae to users who preserved their native vernaculars – Expanded pidgins: in urban settings, some pidgins have expanded into regular vernaculars. E.g. Nigerian pidgin English Creoles: They are regular vernaculars deriving from English and spoken by descendants of non-Europeans. They are spoken in former areas of sugar cane plantations or rice fields (non-European slaves). E.g. Hawaiian Creole English From jargon > pidgin > creole? Today this “life-cycle” is disputed by various other competing hypotheses

54. Colonial standards Colonial standards, or new Englishes  contact between English speakers, local dialects and other European languages, i.e. Spanish, French and Dutch (Australia, New Zealand and South Africa) The institutionalisation of English within colonies: English as the official language of government, bureaucracy, education and religion  Political independence from British colonial control

55. American imperialism Lexical level: – movie, truck, Santa (Claus) – adolescent slang: man as a form of address – Fashion terms: cool for very good – Words of American origin, no longer recognized as such: radio (for older British wireless), commute, fan, star, know-how, let’s face it Pronunciation: – Rhoticity: /r/ after vowels: car BrE/kɑː/ - AmE/kɑːr/ – Jod-deletion: e.g. new, tune, YouTube BrE /juː/ - AmE /uː – American stress: research stressed on the first syllable Spelling: e.g. center vs. centre, program vs. programme, color vs. colour

56. The reasons for the present predominance of English in the world External reasons : the colonial and industrial power of Great Britain in the 18th and 19h centuries; the political, economic and technological power of the USA in the 20th century; the number of speakers; the geographical spread; cultural heritage and/or Internal reasons: clarity, simplicity, size of its vocabulary, flexibility in creating new words, adaptability to distant contexts

57. English as a global language Because of its geographical spread, PDE is referred to as a global language How can this complex sociolinguistic phenomenon be accounted for? The world Englishes paradigm English for Specific Purposes approach Because of its geographical spread, PDE is referred to as a global language How can this complex sociolinguistic phenomenon be accounted for? The world Englishes paradigm English for Specific Purposes approach

58. The ‘three circles of English’ model by Braj Kachru (1985) Inner circle: English as a native language (ENL/L1): c. 400 million people  English transmitted through family, media and school Outer circle: English as a second language (ESL/L2): c. 350-450 million people  intra-national medium of communication (e.g. India) or/and the language of government, media, religion and education Expanding circle: English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and English as a foreign language (EFL): c. 1 billion people  diplomacy, scientific research, international organization (European Union)

60. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) A pragmatic-oriented view of global English which interprets this phenomenon in terms of utility and instrumentality ESP is concerned with the communicative needs of speakers of a second/foreign language in facing a particular workplace, academic, or professional context. In such contexts language is used for a limited range of communicative events. Analysis of language events generally reveals that language is used in constrained and fairly predictable ways. – Legal English – Business English – English for Science and Technology – English for Medical Purposes – English for Engineering Professionals – English for Academic Purposes – English for Aviation – English for Tourism – Seaspeak – Policespeak – […] – Legal English – Business English – English for Science and Technology – English for Medical Purposes – English for Engineering Professionals – English for Academic Purposes – English for Aviation – English for Tourism – Seaspeak – Policespeak – […]

61. Implications for English as a foreign language Two main options:  choose one of the native standards for production on the basis of proximity, tradition, personal needs or taste (i.e. Inner circle varieties)  favour a non-native model, English as a Lingua Franca BUT  be prepared to understand different varieties

62. Who owns English today? “…the English language ceased to be the sole possession of the English some time ago” (Rushdie, 1991 quoted in Crystal 1997, p.140) “…the English language ceased to be the sole possession of the English some time ago” (Rushdie, 1991 quoted in Crystal 1997, p.140)

63. Native varieties or “Colonial Englishes”, are… a set of different but related varieties which share a common core of grammar and vocabulary they differ mainly in pronunciation and lexis the two main ones are British English and American English they provide the norms for EFL learners

64. Second language varieties, or New Englishes … are used in institutional or educational contexts in multilingual countries, usually former British colonies have gone through a process of language contact have been progressively acknowledged as local standards (e.g. Indian English, East- African English) share common features that are different from native standard varieties

65. An example of ESL: Indian English the British East India Company ruled from 1600 to 1858 followed by the British Raj from 1858 to 1947 a local elite which was ‘Indian in blood and colour; but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect” 1.2 billion inhabitants, great variety of languages (15 official ones, Hindi representing 1/3 of the population) English recognized as ‘associate official language’ the British East India Company ruled from 1600 to 1858 followed by the British Raj from 1858 to 1947 a local elite which was ‘Indian in blood and colour; but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect” 1.2 billion inhabitants, great variety of languages (15 official ones, Hindi representing 1/3 of the population) English recognized as ‘associate official language’

66. English in India (linguistic policy) English a ‘link’ language for the Indian Administrative Service, higher education, science and technology its status supported by the non-Hindi parts of India 3-language formula: education for everyone in the regional language, in Hindi and in English learning English raises people’s chances to get a good job, e.g. bank manager, university or college teacher, civil servant, lawyer, etc.

67. Linguistic nativization emotional component of language use, ethnic identity English less used in the family, more in business, politics, technology English is a sign of class, education, authority, cosmopolitan, Western attitude code-switching, lexical innovation (change- room, as honest as an elephant) emotional component of language use, ethnic identity English less used in the family, more in business, politics, technology English is a sign of class, education, authority, cosmopolitan, Western attitude code-switching, lexical innovation (change- room, as honest as an elephant)

68. The speech community of PDE bi-lingualism or multilingualism is the norm languages play an important role in the construction of people’s identities language contact nativization, hybridization, code-switching new coinages: been-to= a person who has spent a long time abroad; change-room= dressing room

69. Advantages and disadvantages World languages have always existed A world language is necessary in a globalised world A post-national language may be useful to world democracy and citizenship English is killing other languages and cultures People are becoming lazy in learning other languages English expresses a particular world view and favours its native speakers (cultural imperialism) English has become uncontrollable What about interpreters and translators?

70. Will English … ? 1.go on being a polycentric language comprising several mutually intelligible varieties ? 2.achieve a balance between identity and international intelligibility? 3.remain strong until English-speaking countries are powerful ? 4. fragment into mutually unintelligible languages as already happened for Romance languages? 5.be rejected as a symbol of colonialism (e.g. Malaysia) or cultural imperialism 6.be spoken as a simplified lingua franca by non- native speakers? 1.go on being a polycentric language comprising several mutually intelligible varieties ? 2.achieve a balance between identity and international intelligibility? 3.remain strong until English-speaking countries are powerful ? 4. fragment into mutually unintelligible languages as already happened for Romance languages? 5.be rejected as a symbol of colonialism (e.g. Malaysia) or cultural imperialism 6.be spoken as a simplified lingua franca by non- native speakers?

71. Food for thought David Crystal on English and Englishes: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZI1EjxxXK w David Crystal on English and Englishes: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZI1EjxxXK w https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_q9b9YqG RY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_q9b9YqG RY A brief summary: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KrsQmIVYrd g https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KrsQmIVYrd g Suggested reading: Bill Bryson, The Mother Tongue Chapter 7 “Varieties of English” (available online on scribd.)