Education in a Changing Society

Education in a Changing Society
Chapter 1

The Reality of Social Change
Two major social changes affecting education are taking place: Changes in demographics Changes in social institutions

Demographics in Transition
Three factors resulting in changing demographics: High immigration rates High birthrates among some segments of the population Aging population

Institutions in Transition
A social institution is a formal, recognized, established, and stabilized way of pursuing some important activity in society. Social institutions provide rules, or social norms, that become internalized in individuals. When institutions change, so do the norms they provide.

Changes in Institutions
In today’s world, all social institutions are experiencing fundamental change: Economics—globalization Politics—new alignments of nations Family—new forms of family life Religion—rise of fundamentalism in all world religions

Changes in Economics and Politics
Economically, there has been a shift from: Loyalty to a single company to loyalty to one’s own self-interest A national to a global focus Politically, there has been a shift from: Political interest within our own borders to interest in political events around the world

Changes in the Family More women are in the workforce.
The divorce rate is high. More families are in poverty. New family “forms” are becoming common (e.g., single-parent families, blended families). More intermarriage between ethnic and religious groups.

Changes in Religious Organizations
Immigrants are bringing unfamiliar religions and religious ideas to the society. Various “new age” religious affiliations are emerging. There is a rise in fundamentalist religious groups in all major religions. Religious groups are becoming important “players” in the political arena, both in the US and globally. Gaps of understanding of religion are changing between the “net” generation and the older generation.

Schools as a Reflection of Social Change
Changing demographics among students Increasing number of children of color Increasing numbers of children whose first language is not English Increasing inclusion of children with disabilities in classrooms Increasing attention to differential treatment of boys and girls in classrooms

Limited English Proficiency
Most Language English Proficient (LEP) students speak Spanish. The United States is the fifth largest Spanish-speaking country in the world. More than half of LEP students are in grades K–4, and more than three-quarters are poor.

Inclusion Legal support for inclusion:
Public Law , Education of All Handicapped Children Act (1975) Amendments to P.L , Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 1990, 1992, 1997) More children with disabilities are being educated side by side with children without disabilities.

Gender and Schooling While girls have not been thought to be educationally different from boys, their experiences in school are often very different. The focus has shifted from research on the educational outcomes of girls to equal concerns about the educational outcomes of boys. Title IX sought to eliminate discrimination on the basis of sex.

Students and Teachers: A Clash of Cultures?
Increasingly, the student population in schools is a multicultural one, while the population of teachers remains much as it has almost always been: white, middle class, and predominantly female—in short, monocultural. This can create something of a clash of cultures between students and teachers. Teachers who are culture bound have little knowledge or experience with people from different cultures. This limits their ability to interact effectively with students who are different from themselves.

Rethinking Schools and Learning
As society changes, schools must also change to accommodate new needs. Thus, there is a national movement for school reform. Reform efforts aimed at “leaving no child behind” through testing and accountability.

Schools in Transition In education, we are experiencing a shift from:
schools that educate an elite, to schools that educate everyone to the same standard; schools that emphasize rote learning, to schools that emphasize critical thinking; schools that emphasize teaching, to schools that emphasize learning.

The Root Causes of Change
New circumstances in the society in which schools are embedded 19th–20th Centuries: Schools reflected the needs of an emerging industrial society. 20th–21st Centuries: Schools are changing to reflect the needs of an emerging information society.

Classrooms for an Industrial Age
Futurist Alvin Toffler calls the industrial age a “Second Wave Civilization”; characteristics of classrooms for this era include: Standardization Synchronization Specialization Centralization Large scale

Standardization in a classroom might be demonstrated by:
All teachers are certified by standard criteria; Teachers and students dress according to a district-wide standard dress code; Textbooks and/or a course of study are the same for all students in grade level or subject; Student performance is judged by standardized tests; For the most part, students work individually; and Students compete for grades, awards, etc.

Synchronization in a classroom might be demonstrated by:
Class periods are of equal length; so are times between class periods; Each subject is taught on a regular basis, usually—but not always—daily; The school day is planned and coordinated according to a regular schedule; The school year is planned in advance.

Specialization in a classroom means that:
Subjects are divided by disciplines; there is little interdisciplinary study; Teachers, administrators, clerical, and support staff have differentiated roles; Ancillary personnel (e.g., nurses, counselors, etc.) also have specific and differentiated roles.

Centralization means that many policy decisions are made at the district level
Centralized decisions are often made about: Curriculum Budgets Purchasing Attendance Discipline Scheduling

Large scale means that, in general, “bigger is better”
This tendency toward large scale can be seen in: Large districts Large buildings Large auditoriums Large bands Large football stadiums

Classrooms for an Information Age
Toffler names the present information age a “Third Wave Civilization.” Characteristics of classrooms for this era include: Individualization and choice Collaboration Diversity Decentralization Small scale

Individual choice may mean that:
Within a broad range of standards, teachers and students may make decisions about curriculum and pedagogy; Students and teachers may make decisions about learning activities; and Students and teachers may set classroom rules to produce an effective learning environment.

Collaboration in such a classroom might look like this:
Teachers across subject areas and disciplines might plan lessons and units together; Parents and community members might be actively involved in classroom activities; and Groups of students might often be found working together on projects and lessons.

Diversity in the classroom might look like this:
Students of different ages may be working together; Students of differing abilities may be working together; Students and teachers may be acting in multiple roles; Students and teachers may be incorporating multiple disciplines in their work; and Students may be of diverse cultural backgrounds.

Decentralization often means school-based decision making
Called site-based management, school-based decision making may involve: Setting learning goals Planning the school budget Setting attendance policies Developing dress codes Hiring new teachers and other personnel

Small scale means more face-to-face interaction
Classes are smaller. Everyone knows everyone else. Students work with a variety of adults. Adults work with a variety of students. It is easier to develop really meaningful learning communities and a sense of belonging for everyone.

As schools move through this transitional period, remember:
Change is difficult. Human beings often react to change with hostility. Human beings often react to change by resisting it. New circumstances often mean new opportunities; it’s up to you. . .

Ideological Perspectives on Multicultural Education
Attention to differences among students is not new. The nature of the differences to which we must attend is broadening. Multicultural education is becoming less a matter of differences within the United States and more a global phenomenon. Multicultural education assures that all students from all groups (racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, ability, gender, etc.) experience educational equality, success, and mobility.

A New Role for Teachers To recognize social and cultural change
To understand culture, learning, and the culture-learning process; teachers must expand their knowledge base of culture and different groups in the US and abroad To be able to improve intergroup and intragroup interactions To transmit intercultural understanding and skills to students; teachers must be proactive and reflective practitioners so students are prepared to become reflective citizens in an interdependent world

The Importance of Stories
Stories help a person visualize and talk about new ideas and experiences. Stories often “speak to” complex human experiences. Stories help us to see the universality of common experiences.

Something to Think About
“The illiterate of the twenty-first century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.” —Alvin Toffler

Multicultural Education: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives
Chapter 2

Historical Perspectives on Pluralism
We have been different from the beginning. European immigrants met highly developed civilizations already here. English culture became dominant because of a slightly more tolerant attitude and their own need for religious freedom.

Industrialization: Immigration and Religious Pluralism
The first type of difference to influence schooling was economic (social class). The common school was largely a response to differences between rich and poor. As the industrial revolution grew and spread, new immigrants from Europe brought Catholicism—and thus, religious difference—into a largely Protestant country. As a result, battles were waged not around race or ethnicity, but around the issue of religion.

The Civil War: Freedmen’s Schools and the Issue of Race
Race became important to schooling after the Civil War. The Freedmen’s Bureau established schools for blacks in the South, a process that was characterized by the same kind of violence as had characterized the development of Catholic schools in the North.

Segregation and the Law
Black children remained in segregated schools that were both underfunded and often open only part of the year. In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that “separate but equal” schools for blacks and whites was constitutional.

The Civil Rights Movement and the Schools
Beginning with Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum during the 1960s and 1970s, resulting in antidiscrimination laws involving not only race, but also differences in language, gender, and disability. In education, the chief concerns were access to and equity in to public education.

Historical Perspectives on Multicultural Education
In the history of public schooling two approaches to difference, based on two different ideologies, have been utilized: Anglo-conformity, or the assimilationist model Multiculturalism, or the pluralist model

Anglo-Conformity, or the Assimilationist Model
From 1860–1920, 37 million immigrants became naturalized citizens. An important task of schooling was thought to be turning these new citizens into “Americans” as quickly as possible. Assimilationists believed that one’s identification with one’s ethnic group should be short-lived and temporary. cont.

Assimilationists believed that in order for society to advance, individuals must give up their ethnic identities, languages, and ideologies in favor of the norms and values of the larger, national society. The goal for assimilationists is to make it possible for everyone to be “melted” into a homogeneous whole.

The “Model” of American Culture
“Real” Americans are: Mostly white, mostly middle class (or trying to be) Mostly Protestant but sometimes Catholic Heterosexual Work hard, eat well, stand on their own two feet, expect their children to behave themselves Wash themselves a good deal and generally try to smell “good” Patriotic, charitable (as long as those receiving the charity try to “shape up”) Believe in “good, old fashioned, common sense” not what is written in books by educated people

The Importance of Schooling in Producing “Real” Americans
Those who do not “fit” the dominant model of “American” must be encouraged, or forced, to reflect these characteristics, because such differences make them dangerous to the maintenance of America as it is “supposed” to be. cont.

The schools are the chosen institution to take on the task of making children who are culturally different into “American” children, that is to teach them the proper way to behave, think, and value so they will fit harmoniously into the monoculturalist’s culture. Large urban school districts formed separate classes or repositories for “unrulies” and for “backward” or “dull” students because they did not “fit.” Special education emerged as a separate system within the public schools.

Multiculturalism, or the Pluralist Ideology
In contrast to the assimilationist ideology, a small group of philosophers and writers came forward with the notions of cultural pluralism and cultural democracy. Pluralists assert that immigrant groups (and, by extension, all identity groups) are entitled to maintain their distinctions within the larger American society.

Pluralist Assumptions
One’s social groups are essential to one’s sense of belonging and psychological support. It is through one’s primary groups that one learns language, as well as attitudes and values. These groups are so important that their interests should be promoted and recognized. The schools are the chosen institution to take on this task. Pluralists believe that the more congruent the school experience is with the experiences of the child, the better the child’s chance of success.

Legislative and Judicial Landmarks
A number of legislative and judicial landmarks have addressed issues of access and equity in terms of: Issues of race Issues of religion Issues of language Issues of gender Issues of disability Issues of social class

Issues of Race Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)–“separate but equal schooling” is constitutional Brown v. Board of Education (1954)– “separate schooling is inherently unequal, and therefore, unconstitutional” Brown v. Board of Education II (1955)– schools must desegregate with “all deliberate speed”

Implementing Brown v. Board
Green v. School Board of New Kent County (1968)—“freedom of choice” plans could not be used to avoid desegregation Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)—authorized mandatory busing Milliken v. Bradley I and II (1973, 1977)—Detroit schools not allowed to mandate cross-district busing (usually thought to be the beginning of the end of busing as a strategy for desegregation)

Issues of Religion Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925)— legitimized parochial and other private schools Engle v. Vitale (1962)—mandatory prayer violates separation of church and state Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)—public schools cannot begin the day with required prayer or Bible reading cont.

Epperson v. State of Arkansas (1968)— schools cannot ban the teaching of evolution
Edwards v. Aguillard (1987)—no state can require that the Biblical version of creation be taught Board of Education of Westside Community Schools v. Mergens (1990)—students may organize and participate in Christian clubs that meet before or after school hours

Issues of Language Bilingual Education Act (1968)—provided funding for bilingual education programs Diana v. State Board of Education (1968)— tests for eligibility for special education services must be given in the dominant language of the student Lau v. Nichols (1974)—affirmative steps must be taken by a school district to rectify language deficiencies cont.

Keyes v. School District No
Keyes v. School District No. 1 (1977)—bilingual education is compatible with desegregation Martin Luther King, Jr. Elementary School Children v. Ann Arbor School District Board of Education (1979)—legitimated Black English as a dialect Proposition 227 (1998, California)—required schools to teach Limited English Proficient (LEP) students in special classes, mostly in English, for not more than one year

Issues of Gender Title IX, Education Amendments (1972)—prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex in schools receiving federal aid Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools (1992)— schools receiving federal funds can be sued for sex discrimination and harassment Alida Star Gebser and Alida Jean Mccullough v. Lago Vista Independent School District (1998)— made it difficult to recover damages from a school district for sexual harassment

Issues of Disability Education of All Handicapped Children Act (1976)— made schools responsible for education “in the least restrictive environment” Honig v. Doe (1988)—special education students who are disruptive may not be suspended or expelled without due process Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1990)—extended services to age 21 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1992)— extended rights of people with disabilities to the private sector

Issues of Social Class and School Funding
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)—provides funding for Title I and for Head Start Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1981) Rose v. Council for a Better Education (1989)—Kentucky Supreme Court declares property tax basis for school funding unconstitutional cont.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1991)
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (2001)—No Child Left Behind Act vastly increases federal role in public education

Public Responses to Multicultural and Bilingual Education Reforms
One group consists of those who advocate programs such as multicultural and bilingual education. Another group consists of those who oppose any special programs, either because: they believe “traditional” schooling provides sufficient upward mobility, or they believe pluralistic approaches will destroy the country. cont.

A third group asserts that pluralism in education should not be viewed as either a remedial form of education or an effort at reparation, but rather as the long-overdue affirmation of a social reality.

Theoretical Perspectives on Multicultural Education
Sleeter and Grant propose five types of multicultural education: Teaching the culturally different Human relations approach Single-group studies Inclusive multicultural education Education that is multicultural and social reconstructionist

Teaching the Culturally Different
These approaches attempt to counter a perceived cultural deficiency Develop competence in the dominant culture Maintain self-identity and retain own cultural identity May mask an assimilationist ideology

Human Relations Approach
Assumes multicultural education is a means by which students of different backgrounds learn to communicate more effectively with one another while learning to feel good about themselves This is a fairly limited approach, and does not include attention to curriculum expansion and empowerment.

Single-group Studies Instruction that focuses on the experiences and cultures of one specific group African-American History, Chicano Literature, and Native American Culture are some examples. While important, such efforts may tend to reinforce a single perspective, while paying less attention to multiple perspectives.

Inclusive Multicultural Education
Places multicultural education in the larger context of overall curriculum and school reform Focuses on the strength and value of diversity in a pluralistic nation Expanded attention to the differences in gender, religion, geographical region, and disability

Education That Is Multicultural and Social Reconstructionist
This approach goes beyond multicultural education by helping students critically analyze the larger social forces involved in discrimination and oppression. Believes that the entire education program should be designed to address the needs of diverse groups regardless of race, ethnicity, culture, religion, exceptionality, or gender Seeks to prepare students not only to think in multiple ways, but to be willing and able to help bring about social justice in the society

The history of multicultural education has its roots in a debate between those who think that American schooling should provide a common education to all children based on the history and culture of European Americans and Western civilization; and those who think that American schooling must recognize and affirm the rich historical and cultural backgrounds and perspectives of a population that has always been diverse and is becoming ever more so. The debate continues.

Culture and the Culture Learning Process
Chapter 3

Defining Culture Culture is socially constructed.
Culture is shared by its members. Culture is both objective and subjective. Culture may be defined by geography, ethnicity, language, religion, history, or other important social characteristics. Culture is socially transmitted.

Culture in Everyday Use
Terms commonly used to describe social groups that share important cultural elements are: Subculture Microculture Ethnic group Minority group People of color

Subculture Subcultures share characteristics that distinguish them from the larger society in which they are embedded; these characteristics may be a set of ideas and practices or some demographic similarity. Some examples of subcultures are: Corporate culture Adolescent culture Drug culture Culture of poverty Academic culture

Microculture Microcultures also share distinguishing characteristics, but tend to be more closely linked to the larger society, often serving in mediating roles; they often interpret and transmit the ideas, values, and institutions of the larger political community. Some examples of microcultures are: The family The workplace The classroom The school

Minority Group Members of minority groups occupy a subordinate position in a society; they may be separated from the dominant society by disapproval and discrimination. Some examples of minority groups in the United States are: Racial minorities Women People with disabilities Language minorities

Ethnic Group Members of ethnic groups share common heritage, history, celebrations and traditions, similar foods; and might speak a common language other than English. Loyalty to one’s ethnic identity can be very powerful. Some examples of ethnic groups are: Irish American Native American Lebanese American African American

People of Color This term refers to members of non-white minority groups; it is often preferred to the term “minority group,” but does not clearly identify specific loyalties. For example, native Spanish-speakers may identify themselves as “Hispanic people of color,” but their cultural identity may be Puerto Rican, Mexican, or Salvadoran.

Culture Solves Common Human Problems
Means of communication—language Determination of power—status Regulation of reproduction—family Systems of rules—government Relationship to nature—magic, myth, religion, science Conception of time—temporality Significant lessons—history Cultural representations—music, story, dance, art

Humans Construct Culture
Culture is one factor that determines the kinds of guidelines to which an individual is exposed. The concept of culture usually refers to things, both physical and mental, that are made or constructed by human beings, rather than to things that naturally occur in the environment.

Culture is Shared Culture is socially constructed by human beings in interaction with one another. Cultural ideas and understandings are shared by a group of people who recognize the knowledge, attitudes, and values of one another. cont.

Moreover, human beings agree on which cultural elements are better than others, arranging these in a hierarchy of value, which can also change over time. In nearly all instances, shared cultural identification is transmitted from one generation to the next.

Culture Is Both Objective and Subjective
Objective culture Physical artifacts Language Clothing Food Decorative objects Subjective culture Attitudes Values Norms of behavior Social roles Meaning of objective cultural elements

Two Ways to Understand Culture
Culture-Specific Approaches: Helps to understand a particular cultural group, for example, Native Americans A problem with this approach is that it does not account for in-group differences Culture-General Approaches: Helps to understand how culture “works” in people’s lives; a universal perspective Suggests questions to ask of any culture

The Culture-Learning Process
Sources of Cultural Knowledge and Identity Individuals in complex societies like the United States tend to identify themselves as belonging to various cultural and social groups, depending on their personal biographies. There are twelve major sources of cultural identity that influence teaching and learning.

Sources of Cultural Identity

Cultural Knowledge Is Transmitted by People and Experiences
We gain the knowledge that contributes to our cultural identities through interaction with various socializing agents. These agents mediate our cultural knowledge in particular ways.

Important Socializing Agents

How We Learn Culture: Socialization
Three stages of socialization Primary socialization—of infants and young children by the family and early caregivers Secondary socialization—in childhood and adolescence, by the school, the religious affiliation, the peer group, the neighborhood, and the media Adult socialization—the workplace, travel, and assuming new roles in life

Some Results of Socialization
Because the process of socialization is intended to cause individuals to internalize knowledge, attitudes, values, and beliefs, it has several results which should not be surprising, as follows:

Ethnocentrism The tendency people have to evaluate others according to their own standards and experience While this tendency can help bind people together, it can also become a serious obstacle when those who have internalized different ideas and behaviors begin to interact with one another.

Perception Stimuli received by our senses would overwhelm us if it weren’t somehow reduced; thus, What we perceive—what we see, hear, feel, taste, and smell—is shaped in part by our culture.

Categorization Categorization is the cognitive process by which all human beings simplify their world by grouping similar stimuli. Our categories give meaning to our perceptions. A prototype image best characterizes the meaning of a category. Example: for the category “bird,” we usually think of robins, not chickens.

Stereotypes Stereotypes are socially constructed categories of people.
They usually obscure differences within groups. They are frequently negative and play to ethnocentric ideas of “the other.”

Some Limits on Socialization
While socialization is a powerful process, it does have limits. It is limited by a child’s physical limits. It is limited because it is never finished, and thus never absolute; it can be changed. It is limited because human beings are not just passive recipients but also actors in their environments.

Understanding Cultural Differences
In a complex, pluralistic society like the United States, all people are in some ways multicultural. While we all draw on common sources of knowledge, we are socialized by different agents, with different perspectives on that knowledge.

The Culture-Learning Process

Variations in Cultural Environments
Although the sources of cultural identity are the same in all societies, the content in those sources may be different. Moreover, each community varies considerably in the number and character of its socializing agents. cont.

Given this complexity, it is wise to consider the possible cultural elements in our own lives and in the lives of others. Despite this potential for variation among individuals and within groups, there are similarities or generalizations that can be made about individuals who identify with particular groups. cont.

What is needed is a more sophisticated way of looking at diversity.

Such an approach to diversity involves several elements:
Questioning the “dominant model,” or the prototype image Questioning stereotypes Looking for commonalities among our differences Thinking of differences as resources to learn from

“By ignoring the cultural and social forms that are authorized by youth and simultaneously empower and disempower them, educators risk complicity in silencing and negating their students. This is unwittingly accomplished by refusing to recognize the importance of those sites and social practices outside of schools that actively shape student experiences and through which students often define and construct their sense of identity, politics, and culture.” —Giroux and Simon

Classrooms and Schools as Cultural Crossroads
Chapter 4

Schools and Classrooms: Where Cultures Interact
In schools, as perhaps nowhere else in American society, people of many different backgrounds are forced to come together for significant periods of time. When they arrive, they find a culture of the school itself that may be very different from their own familiar cultural milieux.

Facets of School Culture
Student culture Teacher culture Parent culture School culture

Student Culture: Diverse in Many Ways
The bases for association and identity: Cultural: ethnicity, race, gender, class Academic: biology club, French club Interest or Skill: choir, band, football Social: cliques, gangs

Teacher Culture: Predominantly Homogenous
70 percent female Historically, working and middle class Relatively low status in the adult social system of the school 90 percent European American

Parent Culture Socioeconomic status of family First language of family
Family organization Immigrant or refugee status of families

Culture of the School as a Whole
“Cultural bound,” and the culture to which most are bound is the dominant culture of European American Overwhelmingly middle class in values Its purpose is to transmit the cultural beliefs, values, and knowledge affiliated with the dominant society Interested in social control Often sees diversity as a problem, not a resource

Teachers as Cultural Mediators
A new role for teachers: mediating cultural similarities and differences Be knowledgeable about the role of culture in teaching and learning. Be skillful in addressing the educational needs of diverse students. Be prepared to engage students in content and activities that enable them to handle intercultural interactions with others.

Reshaping Cultural Identity
Given the diversity of today’s schools, teachers need to adjust to a new reality. There are predictable patterns in such adjustment. One such pattern is the U-curve hypothesis.

Diagram of the U-Curve Hypothesis

The U-Curve Hypothesis
Honeymoon: Excitement at dealing with new people; preconceived notions Hostility: Frustration when preconceived notions do not produce desired results Humor: If frustrations are conquered, understanding begins and one can laugh at one’s mistakes Home: One’s own cultural identity has been altered; one feels “at home”

Reshaping Identity Takes Time
It may be as long as two years; if a new language is involved, it may take up to seven. It is difficult, though not at all impossible, to alter deeply held beliefs about others. If we are to take full advantage of our diverse people, both teachers and students need to think seriously about reshaping our own cultural identities.

Acculturation and Identity
Acculturation refers to the changes that take place as a result of continuous firsthand contact between individuals of different cultures. The degree of mobility and the degree of choice in acculturating groups are both important.

High Degree of Mobility
Immigrants or Sojourners: those with a high degree of mobility who voluntarily make contact with new cultural groups Refugees: those with a high degree of mobility but little or no choice in making contact with new cultural groups

Low Degree of Mobility Ethnic Groups: those with a low degree of mobility but a high degree of voluntary contact with others Indigenous People: those with a low degree of mobility and a low degree of voluntary contact with others

Themes from Cross-Cultural Psychology
People tend to communicate their cultural identity to others in the broadest terms possible. Because we are all multicultural, our cultural identity is dynamic and always changing. Although culture is complex and variable, it is nevertheless patterned. cont.

Interactions with other cultures can be viewed as a resource for understanding.
Behavior should be judged in relation to its context. Persons holding a multicultural perspective continually strive to find common ground between individuals.

A Model of Cross-Cultural Interaction
Designed to be universal…adaptable to any cross-cultural encounter Recognizes that people have similar reactions to cross-cultural encounters Builds on a desire to analyze, understand, and improve intercultural interactions cont.

Does not prescribe specific courses of action
Captures the experience of cultural differences from a variety of perspectives: Emotional Informational Developmental Does not prescribe specific courses of action Relies on the individual, empowered by culture-general knowledge, to inquire into causes of problems and propose solutions

Stages in Cross-Cultural Interaction
Stage 1: Understanding Emotional Responses in Intercultural Interaction Stage 2: Understanding the Cultural Basis of Unfamiliar Behavior Stage 3: Making Adjustments and Reshaping Cultural Identity

Stage 1: Understanding Emotional Responses
Anxiety—about appropriate behavior Ambiguity—messages may be unclear Disconfirmed Expectations—what we think will happen doesn’t Belonging/Rejection—we don’t know the “rules” Confronting Personal Prejudices—we may find that our previously held beliefs are inaccurate

Stage 2: Understanding the Cultural Basis of Unfamiliar Behavior
Communication and Language Use: understanding verbal and nonverbal, facial expressions, gestures Values: deeply held, they may be quite different Rituals and Superstitions: may be viewed as “silly” to one group or another Situational Behavior: the “rules” of behavior may vary in the same situation cont.

Roles: knowledge of appropriate role behavior may also vary across culture groups
Social Status: markers of high and low status with respect to roles may vary Time and Space: differences in conceptions of time and space may vary, as well as differences in appropriate behavior regarding time (e.g. punctuality) Relationship of the Group to the Individual: the importance of the individual and/or the group may be different across culture groups.

Stage 3: Making Adjustments and Reshaping Cultural Identity
Changes and adjustments may occur in the following: Categorization—the content and value of our categories Differentiation—as we become more sophisticated, meaning is associated with more refined categories Ingroups and Outgroups—redefining who’s “in” and who’s “out” in meaningful ways Learning Style—adjustments and expansions in our ability to learn effectively Attribution—broadening the basis on which we understand the behavior of others

Applying the Culture-General Model
Allows people to build a common culture-related vocabulary around differences Provides a tool to more accurately assess the nature of intercultural interactions

Identifying Commonalities
The goal of the culture-general model goes beyond simply negotiating differences. It is intended to help individuals search for commonalities, to build bridges to one another, so that all may feel sufficiently comfortable, and so that they can confront differences with equanimity.

Identifying Differences
Equally important to identifying differences between groups is the ability to identify differences within groups. Such variations as social class, geographical location, sexual orientation, or religion are not easy to “see,” but may be important in the way individuals perceive the world and approach learning.

“It is often hard to learn from people who are just like you. Too much is taken for granted. Homogeneity is fine in a bottle of milk, but in the classroom it diminishes the curiosity that ignites discovery.” —Vivian Gyssin Paley

Creating Classrooms that Address Race and Ethnicity
Chapter 6

Lay versus Scientific Understanding of Race and Ethnicity
Pedagogies: Old and New Teachers do not shy away from the deep-seated influence that race plays in people’s lives. Teachers understand the historical significance of race. Teachers are aware that majority children may not understand the role race plays in their lives.

Roles: Old and New Teachers understand their roles as active agents of change. Teachers reach out to individuals and community groups that represent various ethnic and racial groups. Students interact with community groups working to change the status quo.

Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New
History of diversity in the United States a critical element Concept of “race” often used incorrectly Genotype—shared genetic material Phenotype—visible traits (e.g., skin color) Textbooks often inaccurate and dated Content materials often biased (intentionally or unintentionally)

Assessment: Old and New
Assessment instruments may be developed and normed with only one race or ethnic group in mind. Assessments should consider the sociocultural context of the learner. Biases and stereotypes Prior experience of the learner Assessments should be varied.

Understanding Prejudice and Racism
Ethnocentrism leads people to believe that their own “ways” are good and “natural.” Prejudice implies a lack of thought or care in making a judgment with prejudicial responses being quick, narrow in scope, and based oftentimes on negative emotions rather than accurate information. While racial and ethnic prejudice can be expressed both positively and negatively, in the United States it is most often negative.

The Functions of Prejudice
Adjustment Function—prejudicial attitudes may help one adjust to a complex world Ego-Defensive Function—prejudicial attitudes may protect one’s self-concept Value-Expressive Function—prejudicial attitudes may help demonstrate one’s own self-concept to others Knowledge Function—prejudicial attitudes may reinforce the stereotypical knowledge of one’s ingroup

Prejudice Formation: The Components of Prejudice
The cognitive component refers to the process of categorization. The affective component refers to the feelings that accompany a person’s thoughts about members of a particular group. The behavioral component refers to the discriminatory behavior that people who harbor prejudices direct toward others.

How Children Learn Prejudice
Observation and passive learning from respected elders Membership in a group that excludes others The media, when it reinforces stereotypes Religious fundamentalism that emphasizes exclusive rights to “the truth”

Extreme Cases of Prejudice
Racism—the transformation of prejudicial attitudes through the use of power directed toward those one regards as inferior Hate Groups—any organized body that denigrates select groups of people based on ethnicity, race, religion, or sexual orientation; or that advocates the use of violence against such groups or their members for purposes of scapegoating cont.

White Privilege—the largely unconscious acceptance by dominant groups of privileges denied to oppressed groups Racial Profiling—law enforcement practices aimed at those who “fit” a particular profile—usually age, ethnicity, and/or race

Curriculum Transformation: Strategies for Prejudice Reduction
Critical to reducing prejudice and establishing an interculturally sensitive classroom is the teacher’s understanding of, and ability to integrate, intercultural awareness and prejudice reduction activities into the curriculum. Intercultural sensitivity is not “natural”—cross-cultural contact has historically been accompanied by bloodshed, oppression, or genocide.

Educational Strategies to Reduce Prejudice
Improving social contact and intergroup relations Equal Status Contact: When those who are brought together perceive they are of equal status Superordinate Goals: When the purpose of bringing people together cannot be accomplished without the participation of all cont.

Encouragement of Intergroup Interaction: All involved in a school must actively encourage and support efforts of teachers and students to experiment with curricular and other innovations to improve the school involvement with differences. Personal Familiarity: People must have the opportunity to get to know the “other” person in ways that render the stereotypic image clearly inaccurate or inappropriate.

Some Cautions in Applying the Contact Hypothesis
Many schools are monocultural, providing little opportunity for intergroup contact to occur; in such cases it is best to stress the diversity that is present (e.g., socioeconomic or gender). Equal status contact within the school may conflict with that which occurs outside the school.

Increasing Cognitive Sophistication
Improving students’ critical thinking skills Questioning Analyzing Suspending judgment until all available information is collected and studied

Improving Self-Confidence and Self-Acceptance
A sense of self-worth and self-confidence supports the reduction of prejudice. Students feel secure and accepted. Student participation is valued. Students know the boundaries and limits of behavior.

Increasing Empathy for and Understanding of Others
Long-term gains in prejudice reduction require educational activity that actively engages the emotions Writing stories or acting out dramatizations of cross-cultural situations Any activity that enables students to “step into the shoes” of another Classroom simulations that generate “culture shock”

Comprehensive Programs That Improve Intergroup Relations
Anti-Bias Education for Young Children—a curriculum published by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Cooperative Learning—helping children work together in pursuit of the common goal of achieving the objectives of the lesson at hand A World of Difference—a curriculum developed by the Anti-Defamation League to address issues of prejudice and racism Facing History and Ourselves—focus on the history of Nazi Germany and the Holocaust

“…let’s think about the consequences of silence. I think about Hitler. He got into power because people around him were silent and didn’t challenge him. When you are silent, you are giving tacit approval of the messages you hear around you… Your simple comments can go quite far at making change.” —John Gray

Developing Learning Communities
Language and Learning Style Chapter 8

Characteristics of a Learning Community
It is organized for activity. Everyone in the school participates in this activity-oriented environment. There is a sense that everyone belongs to the community: students, teachers, parents, administrators, support staff, volunteers, and other members of the broader community outside of the school.

Rationale for Learning-Community Classrooms
Need to prepare students to be citizens of a democracy. . . Through learning to negotiate differences in the context of a common curriculum Through learning citizenship by practicing democracy

Pedagogies: Old and New
Old methods with new names: Dialogue (Plato) Discovery learning (Abelard) Critical pedagogy, inquiry learning, feminist pedagogy, and collaborative learning (Comenius) What is new: That these should exist at the same time and be used by both children and adults

Roles: Old and New Traditional roles of students and adults are expanded: Teacher as “teller” expanded to teacher as guide, coach, cheerleader Other adults assume teaching and learning roles Students may be “teachers” as well as learners

Disciplinary knowledge serves a dual role: Sometimes it is learned as an end in itself Sometimes it serves as a means to another end (e.g., problem solving or discovering a new way to see and understand the world)

There is still a use for paper-and-pencil testing, standardized or teacher-written. General use for such tests is diagnostic. Alternative forms of assessment also play a part: Peer evaluation Portfolios Group tests Self-evaluation

Perspectives on Language Acquisition
Language is what makes us human, and is the primary means for socializing us into our families and social groups; and through them, for acquiring a cultural identity.

The Family Is the First Institution
Introduces us to language Language objectifies, interprets, and justifies reality for the child, thus structuring the child’s environment. Gives labels to roles, such as Mommy, teacher, and priest, extending roles into the wider community Language brings the meanings and values of the wider community onto the small state of the immediate family.

Institutional Aspects of Language in the Family
Language has several characteristics in common with other social institutions. It is external. It is objective. It has the power of moral authority. It is historical.

Perspectives on Language Variation
All language sounds have symbolic meaning. Within any language, however, the meaning of elements may differ widely: Vocabulary Pronunciation Syntax (grammatical structure) Semantics (the meaning of words)

Verbal Communication Accents: differ from standard language only in pronunciation Dialects: differ from standard language in pronunciation, word usage, and syntax Black English (Ebonics) Rural, or mountain, English Standard English

Black English (Ebonics, African American Language [AAL])
Spoken primarily (though not exclusively) by urban African Americans Derived in part from the languages of West Africa The ability to code switch (move back and forth from Ebonics to standard English) is often a matter of social class.

Rural (or Mountain) English
Spoken primarily in Appalachia Derived from the language of early English settlers in the area May be the “purest” English spoken in the United States Has been preserved, in part, because of isolation of mountain people

Standard English Is also a dialect of English, although it is the dialect usually deemed most “correct” Is the language of education, commerce, and the arts May vary from community to community, and from country to country

Bidialectalism: the ability to speak two (or more) dialects and to switch easily between or among them Sign Language: a form of nonverbal language of signs spoken by the deaf Used instead of a spoken language American Sign Language (ASL) is considered an “official” language

Nonverbal Communication
Used by both hearing and hearing-impaired individuals Accounts for 50 to 90 percent of the messages we send and receive It has several functions: Conveys messages Can augment verbal communication Can contradict verbal communication Can replace verbal communication

Three aspects of nonverbal communication:
Proxemics: sometimes called “social space”; refers to the “normal” distance considered appropriate between two people speaking Kinesics: body language (e.g., gestures, facial expressions, eye contact) Paralanguage: vocalizations that are not words (e.g., sighs, laughter, crying)

Culture, Language, and Learning Style
These three are inextricably intertwined. Language shapes and is shaped by culture. Culture shapes and is shaped by language. Learning style originates and accounts for variations in patterns of learning, and is shaped by both language and culture.

Components of Learning Style
Field Dependence: individual perceives globally or holistically; orientation is social; is good at observation Field Independence: individual perceives discrete parts; is good at abstract thought; tends to be individualistic; prefers working alone

Additional Components of Learning Style
Preferred sensory mode for learning (e.g., sight, sound, smell, touch, taste, movement) Response to immediate environment Emotionality Social preferences Cognitive-psychological orientation

Multiple Intelligences
The idea, based on brain research and proposed by Howard Gardner, that human beings not only have preferred learning styles, but also preferred ways of expressing intellectual ability, and thus, of thinking

Seven kinds of intelligence:
Visual/Spatial Verbal/Linguistic Logical/Mathematical Bodily/Kinesthetic Musical/Rhythmic Interpersonal Intrapersonal

Origins of Learning Style
Still a matter of conjecture Appear to be a combination of: Biological factors Psychological factors Sociocultural factors

Relation of Language to Culture
Language determines vocabulary, which sets the “right” meaning of words and of cultural ideas. Language plays a critical role in the maintenance of subgroups within a larger culture. Language reflects the thought processes of a culture.

Relation of Learning Style to Culture
Learning style is developed in the context of what we attend to (perception) and how we attend to it—both culturally shaped adaptations to the physical and social environment. Thus, particular learning styles are often associated with particular cultural groups.

The Significance of Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles
The importance of these qualities for teachers lies in their ability to identify preferred modes of learning and to adapt instruction so that all students get to practice learning in multiple ways. No one recommends that students learn only in their preferred mode or that teachers teach in more than one mode.

Perspectives on Bilingual Education and Second Language Acquisition
With increasing immigration to the US in recent decades, schools are being faced with challenges of large numbers of children for whom English is not their first language. There are more than 9,000,000 LEP students enrolled in schools today (US Census 2000); one out of every six children speak a language other than English at home. The terminology has changed. Children whose first language is not English are most often called English Language Learners or ELLs.

Ethical Issues Students who speak a dialect of English, or whose first language is not English, are likely to be stigmatized. Debates about language in the schools are likely to be as much about issues of cultural domination as they are about language itself. The assessment of students with limited English proficiency must be done with care. Without diverse languages, diverse cultures may also disappear. cont.

The increasing prevalence of English in worldwide modes of communication—especially television and the Internet—may mean that many languages are disappearing. Some balance needs to be achieved between protecting “small” languages and encouraging international exchange. The negative American attitude toward learning more than one language may get in the way of our own international understanding.

“When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the ‘human essence,’ the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man and that are inseparable from any critical phase of human existence, personal or social.” —Noam Chomsky

Religious Pluralism in Secular Classrooms
Chapter 9

Rationale for Attending to Religion in Public Schools
Americans have always been concerned with the role of religion in matters of state. Early colonists came to escape religious persecution; later immigrants have brought a variety of religious beliefs, rituals, and habits of mind. Much of the cultural capital of the United States has emerged from attempts to answer basically religious questions. cont.

Connections to religious ideas and symbols emerges, in part, from a universal human need for a spiritual dimension. While religion in some societies permeates the whole culture, in the United States the founders were concerned that religion be separated from the state in concrete ways cont.

The Constitutional language of the First Amendment tries to guarantee that separation: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, [establishment clause] or prohibiting the free exercise thereof [prohibition clause]…” These two clauses have created a field on which battles of interpretation have been fought for 225 years.

Definitions of Religion
Universal Definitions: “a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggle with…the ultimate problems of human life” (Yinger) “…a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things…beliefs and practices which unite into some single moral community…” (Durkheim)

Sectarian Definitions:
Define and describe particular religious denominations in terms of: Theological point of view Religious practices Religious experience Knowledge of scriptures and traditions Consequences for daily life Consequences for “falling away” from the faith

Changes in the United States Over Time
The degree to which religious belief has been deemed necessary to public life has changed. Technology, especially television, has enabled people to have knowledge of religion without actually attending services. The increasing interdependence of the world’s social systems means that one religious system can have an enormous impact on other religious systems, and, indeed, on daily life around the world.

Religious Pluralism in the United States
Prior to Colonization: a wide variety of religious beliefs and practices by native peoples The centrality of a Creator A reverence for the natural world A belief that human beings were obligated to preserve and protect the natural world Religion in the Colonial Era: Christianity and Judaism Historically western and European A belief that human beings were destined to “rule over” the natural world

Dominance of different religious sects in different parts of the colonies:
New England: a Puritan Protestantism The Middle Colonies: greater diversity, including Catholic, Quaker, and Anabaptist—no particular denomination prevailed The South: largely modeled on the Anglican Church of England Jews were also among the earliest immigrants, and were spread over the colonies.

17th through the 19th Centuries:
African nativist religious ideas were brought to the colonies by captured slaves Combined with and enriched the primarily Protestant Christian traditions; after slavery was finally abolished, African-American churches grew stronger and had an immense influence on the cultural and educational lives of its members, which continues today.

19th and 20th Centuries: Introduction of Islam to the United States
The Muslim faith is currently one of the fastest growing religions in the United States. Membership is in part African American (e.g., the Nation of Islam). Members are also immigrants from Middle Eastern countries (e.g., Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria), from both North and sub-Saharan Africa, and from Malaysia.

Characteristics of a Classroom That Attends to Religious Pluralism
Pedagogies: Old and New Teachers should know the backgrounds of their students and their students’ families. Teachers should know something about the worldview of particular religions represented in their classes. Teachers should adapt instruction, as required, to give all students the chance to learn effectively and to practice learning in different ways.

Roles: Old and New Because of potential conflict, teachers need to assume a role as interpreter and, sometimes, mediator. School rules and customs such as dress codes may have to be amended for those from different religious backgrounds. The school calendar may also have to take a variety of religious holidays into account.

While schools have tried to cope with religious controversy by trying to avoid it, religious history, as well as religious architecture, art, music, and ideas can become the basis for an enriched and affirming classroom. Remember that the Supreme Court has not, in any of its decisions on the subject, prohibited discussions about religion in schools, as follows:

—from the decision by Justice Clark:
“…it might well be said that one’s education is not complete without a study of comparative religion or the history of religion and its relationship to the advancement of civilization. It certainly may be said that the Bible is worthy of study for its literary and historic qualities. Nothing we have said here indicates that such study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education, may not be effected consistent with the First Amendment.” —Abington v. Schempp (1963)

Examples of Religious Content:
Dietary regulations in health or home economics classes Islamic geometrical designs in math classes Major works of art depicting religious themes in art classes Religious music in music classes Studies of comparative religion in history or social studies classes

Use sensitivity when creating exam questions on subjects related to religion (e.g., on evolution). Use sensitivity when deciding upon the use of psychological testing (some families believe these are a corruption of family values). Use sensitivity when deciding about the use of various health screening techniques, especially invasive ones.

Perspectives on Religion and Schooling in the United States
Constitutional language in the First and Fourteenth Amendments has been both the source of religious freedom and the source of educational battles.

Sources of tension include:
The need for schools, as an arm of the state, to support a basic freedom guaranteed by the Constitution The need for schools, also as an arm of the state, to uphold the separation of church and state

Two Broad Categories of Debate (R. Freeman Butts)
Education’s role in protecting private freedoms: “those that inhere in the individual, and therefore may not be invaded or denied by the state.” Education’s role in guaranteeing public freedoms: “…those that inhere in the welfare of the democratic political community…”

Private Freedoms and Some Relevant Court Cases
Education has a role to play in protecting private freedoms, or “those that inhere in the individual, and therefore may not be invaded or denied by the state.” Among these are compulsory attendance and the individual practice of religious beliefs in classrooms, including prayer.

Compulsory Attendance
Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925): children must go to school, but private religious schools satisfy that requirement Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): the so-called “Amish exception”: Old Order Amish can disobey Wisconsin’s compulsory schooling law and withdraw their children after the eighth grade

The Practice of Religious Beliefs in Classrooms
Meyer v. Nebraska (1923): the right of parents to guide their children’s education is affirmed West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnett (1943): no one can be forced to salute the flag or say the Pledge of Allegiance if it violates individual conscience

School Prayer Abington v. Schempp (1963): requiring student participation in sectarian prayers and reading from the Bible, particularly the New Testament, is unconstitutional Lee v. Weisman (1992): sectarian prayers at high school graduations are unconstitutional Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe (2000): sectarian prayers at high school football games are unconstitutional

Public Freedoms and Some Relevant Court Cases
Education also has a role to play in protecting public freedoms, such as the need of the nation for an educated citizenry and the need of the society for the socialization of its children in moral and ethical behavior. Issues raised here include public funding for private religious schools and the provision of religious instruction.

Public Funding for Religious Schools
Cochran v. Louisiana Board of Education (1930): use of public funds to purchase textbooks for private schools is constitutional Everson v. Board of Education (1947): use of public funds to bus students to religious schools is constitutional The National Defense Education Act (1958) and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) provided funds for some aspects of private religious schooling

The Provision of Religious Instruction
McCollum v. Board of Education (1948): religious instruction in public schools is unconstitutional Zorach v. Clausen (1952): religious instruction during school hours is constitutional if it takes place off school grounds

Alternatives to Public Schooling, Often Based on Religious Views
Charter Schools—public schools funded by the state but run by local councils; funding is taken away from public schools Home Schooling—parent-taught education, often using commercially prepared curricula and lessons Voucher Programs—funding (vouchers) attached to the child for use in private, often religious schools, as alternatives to the child’s public school

Other Important Court Decisions
Epperson v. State of Arkansas (1968): statutes criminalizing the teaching of evolution are unconstitutional Lemon v. Kurzman (1971): Court outlines a three-pronged test for deciding whether any state statute violates the establishment clause of the First Amendment, as follows:

Lemon’s “Three-Pronged Test”
Does the challenged practice or policy have a secular purpose? Does it have the effect of neither advancing nor inhibiting religious practices? Does the practice or policy avoid an excessive entanglement between government and religion?

Perspectives on Religious Identity
Religious identity has its roots in the family. It is perhaps the most common and also perhaps the strongest source of identity. Religious identity places an individual in a particular relationship with a deity.

The Influence of the “Religious Right”
While the so-called “religious right” is a contemporary conservative political movement of Protestant Christians, it is not the only conservative religious movement. Fundamentalist movements are prevalent in all major religions around the world.

Particular educational interests of fundamentalist movements:
Prayer in schools Curriculum content Teaching of morality and “character” Funding for private and parochial schools Censorship of books available to or required of students

Ethical Issues Responsibility of teachers to be aware of and understand the religious background of their students Responsibility of teachers to know the law with respect to religious issues Responsibility of teachers to be sensitive to students’ religious beliefs with respect to curriculum content, religious dress, religious holidays, and methods of instruction

The principle of separation of church and state has not prevented many people from believing that schools should be a repository of morality; the question has always been, “Whose morality are we talking about?”

Developing a Collaborative Classroom
Gender and Sexual Orientation Chapter 10

Rationale for Collaborative Teaching and Learning
An interdependent world requires that we learn to live cooperatively. Competition for natural resources is counterproductive. Thirty years of research demonstrates that girls (and probably boys) learn more effectively when cooperation is the norm.

Characteristics of a Collaborative Classroom
Both competitive and collaborative approaches are present. Teachers, students, other school personnel, parents, and members of the community work together to plan and implement instructional goals. Lessons are integrated. Interest in home-school collaboration is high; parents are viewed as “first teachers.” Students cooperate with one another in planning their activities.

Pedagogies: Old and New
Collaborative work in schools is not new: think about teams, choirs, plays. In collaborative classrooms, this kind of work is applied to the formal curriculum. In collaborative classrooms, the instructional mode is cooperative learning.

The Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning: Two Factors
Goals cannot be accomplished unless each member of the group does his or her part (task specialization). The group’s success depends on each individual learning the required material; the group sinks or swims together (positive goal interdependence).

Secondary Characteristics of Cooperative Learning
Emphasis on face-to-face interaction Development of social skills Group participation in reflection and analysis: monitoring how well the group is doing

Uses of Cooperative Learning
To teach specific content To ensure active cognitive processing of information To provide long-term support for and assistance in academic progress

Roles: Old and New The teacher often acts as a coach.
Students may serve as coaches as well. Parents, grandparents, and other community members often serve as instructors. Adults and students use a partnership model of teaching and learning.

Because teachers and students collaborate, content is often interdisciplinary. Learning (and teaching) serve a variety of purposes. Students are better able to make connections between areas of knowledge.

Assessment techniques should be compatible with instructional strategies. Assessment of collaborative work should measure performance over time (e.g., with portfolios or other demonstrations of both individual and group problem-solving ability).

Perspectives on Gender Identity
The development of one’s sense of identity—the knowledge that one is separate from parents and family—begins early. A critical part of identity development, beginning at least at birth, is gender.

Sex and Gender Identity
Identification in terms of sex begins at about 18 months of age—“I am a girl,” “I am a boy.” However, while sex is a biological characteristic, gender is a social one—what it means to be a boy or girl in any given society; what the rules are.

Gender Role Socialization
The rules associated with one’s gender role may vary by race, ethnicity, social class, religion, and even by geographical region. The process of learning one’s gender role can be described in three parts, as follows:

The child learns to distinguish between men and women, boys and girls, and to know what kinds of behavior are characteristic of each; The child learns to express appropriate gender role preferences for himself or herself; The child internalizes the “rules” and learns to behave in accordance with gender role standards.

Gender Role Socialization in the Middle Class
Parents: Boys handled more roughly, girls get more verbal attention Boys given more freedom to explore; girls kept closer to supervising parent Girls get more help in solving problems; boys told to “figure it out” Parents’ approval of “appropriate” gender behavior shapes the behavior of children

Other Socializing Agents
Television Children’s books Children’s toys Nursery rhymes, religious stories Proverbs and sayings

Masculine and Feminine Behavior
It is also the case that this society favors the active, the adventuresome, and the aggressive, and that these traits are largely associated with boys. But boys pay a high price for this association. cont.

Boys are socialized much earlier to gender role behavior than are girls.
Boys are also punished more harshly than girls for deviation from norms of gender role. Consider the relative meaning of the terms “tomboy” and “sissy.” Which has a more negative connotation? At what ages can these terms commonly be applied?

Perspectives on Gender and Schooling
Schools as socializing agents Schools have an important socializing function for middle-class norms. Among those norms are those for gender roles. While these norms are changing, sanctions still operate when boys and girls move too far from the norms for each.

Gender Stereotypes in School
For boys: independent, strong, logical, direct, adventurous, and aggressive For girls: passive, weak, illogical, indirect, gentle, and emotional These traits, while they can be exhibited by either sex, are genderized in favor of one or the other.

Social Factors That Enforce Male and Female Stereotypes
Misogyny—the denigration or hatred of women Homophobia—the fear of homosexuality and homosexuals In both cases, the assumption is that feminine qualities are less valued, even contemptible.

Some Further Definitions
Sex Role Stereotyping: when specific behaviors, abilities, interests and values are attributed to one sex or the other Sex Bias: behavior that results from an underlying belief in sex role stereotypes Sex Discrimination: any action that denies opportunities, privileges, or rewards on the basis of sex

Gender as an Issue of Legal Equity in Schools
Title IX, Educational Amendments (1972) “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.”

Some Important Court Cases
Grove City v. Bell (1984)—Supreme Court agrees that schools that do not receive direct federal funds can be excluded from Title IX Civil Rights Restoration Act (1988)—overrode Bell; required all education institutions receiving any federal funds (e.g., student loans) must comply with Title IX Numerous cases have been brought in lower courts on the question of girls’ athletics; most have affirmed Title IX.

Other cases have been brought on issues of sexual harassment; the results have been mixed in adult-on-student cases: Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools (1992)—petitioners may claim punitive damages under Title IX when intent to evade compliance is established Gebser and Mccullough v. Lago Vista Independent School District (1997)—denied compensatory damages from both the teacher involved and the school district

The first successful student-on-student harassment case was decided in 1995:
Doe v. Petaluma Unified School District (1995)—plaintiff was awarded punitive damages of $250,000

Major Studies on Gender and Schooling in the Last Decade
Mid-Atlantic Equity Center and NETWORK Study (1993) found eight areas of concern related to Title IX still to be addressed in order to ensure equal educational opportunity for all students, as follows:

Girls at risk of dropping out of school
Gender bias in student–teacher interactions Participation and achievement of girls in math and science Students enrolling and completing vocational education courses historically nontraditional to their sex Gender bias in standardized tests Gender differences in learning styles Teen pregnancy and parenting Sexual harassment of students by their peers

American Association of University Women (AAUW) Studies in the 1990s
Studied self-esteem, educational opportunities, career aspirations among boys and girls Studied incidence and impact of sexual harassment in American schools, the impact of different educational approaches on girls’ achievement, the influence of school climate on adolescents, and single-sex education for girls

AAUW Studies: Findings
Lower self-esteem among girls Differentiated educational experiences Gendered career aspirations Issues that tend to favor boys: Academic achievement Curricular materials Learning environments Sexuality education

Where We Are Now New interest in the education of boys as well as girls New issues of concern: Single-sex education (of both boys and girls), particularly in math and science Use of technology New interest in socialization of boys to gender role, particularly with respect to violence, decreasing academic achievement, increasing numbers of boys on medication for hyperactivity disorders

Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality
Sexual activity among teenagers is lower than 10 or 15 years ago, but is still very high. The United States has the highest teenage pregnancy rate in the industrialized world. The likelihood of sexual activity increases with age; more than half of seventeen-year-olds are sexually active and close to 98 percent report using some form of contraception. cont.

Among the most difficult problems facing teachers and students is the relationship between heterosexual and homosexual students. Public awareness about homophobia has increased, due largely to gay and lesbian activism and the tragedy of AIDS. Some studies suggest that the more students know about homosexuality, the less homophobic they will be toward homosexual people. cont.

Tolerance is also complicated by gender-related issues involved:
Yet, cognitive knowledge about homosexuality often fails to neutralize deep-seated attitudes of anger and guilt that accompany the issue. Tolerance is also complicated by gender-related issues involved: Hostility and violence are more often directed toward gay men than toward lesbian women. Losing jobs or being evicted from housing is a more common problem for lesbians. cont.

Differences in masculine and feminine traits (and behavior) are perhaps as wide among homosexuals as they are among heterosexuals, which serves to complicate the issue still further. The belief that gay men are “feminine” and lesbians are “masculine” is as much a stereotype as any other kind of stereotypic categorization. One of the most difficult aspects of homosexuality in a homophobic society is the separation of sex and gender.

Teachers Can Decrease Levels of Homophobia
By using gender-free terminology (e.g., partners and persons) instead of husband, wife, boyfriend, or girlfriend By systematically interrupting homophobic comments By overtly using homophobic misinformation to encourage critical thinking By using educational materials that do not assume that all students are heterosexual

Ethical Issues The degree to which all students are encouraged to be open, reflective, and critical thinkers The degree to which open inquiry may place students at odds with their families or the community The degree to which the role of the school is seen as one which helps all students to understand, appreciate, and negotiate differences—of gender and sexuality as well as of other characteristics

Although it is true that not every single boy or girl believes in or adheres to gender stereotypes, it is generally true that society, in part through schooling, attempts to enforce them. . .even in the face of contrary evidence.

Education in a Changing Society

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