1. Aboriginal Peoples: Responses

2. Government policy of assimilation “The happiest future for the Indian race is absorption into the general population, and this is the object of the policy of our government. The great forces of intermarriage and education will finally overcome the lingering traces of native custom and tradition.” Duncan Campbell Scott, Superintendant of Indian Affairs 1913 - 1932

3. Impacts of Government Policy Indian Act made Aboriginal peoples “wards of the state” Placed under guardianship of government which made rules to control their lives Forced to move on to reserves – loss of traditional lifestyles Those who tried to live off reserve faced discrimination and prejudice Children sent to residential schools

4. Responses – League of Indians 1920s and 1930s – Aboriginal peoples began to form organizations to fight for their rights Mohawk Fred Loft founded League of Indians in 1919 to provide a united voice for Aboriginal nations Government wanted to enfranchise Aboriginal veterans of WWI, but only if they gave up their Aboriginal status Loft believed that Aboriginal people had a right to vote without giving up their status

5. Edward Ahenakew, a Cree, helped to extend the League into western Canada League fought for better health and education programs, more financial aid, control over reserve lands, and right to hunt, fish, and trap without government interference

6. Allied Tribes In BC, Allied Tribes pushed for recognition of Aboriginal land rights Very few treaties signed in BC Aboriginal nations believed they had rights to land as the original inhabitants Took their case to the Privy Council in London, but were blocked by officials at the Canadian High Commission

7. Government’s Reaction Government responded to political activism by making it illegal for Aboriginal nations to raise funds for land claims Restricted their right to form political organizations Ban on traditional ceremonies such as the potlatch was strictly enforced – people thrown in jail Police seized masks and other sacred objects

8. When Six Nations attempted to gain international recognition as an independent nation equal to all other nations in the world, the RCMP were sent to the reserve Police got rid of the traditional council and took sacred wampum belts

9. Aboriginal Political Movements after WWII After war, more people became aware of the social injustices faced by Aboriginal people and felt they could no longer be ignored More Canadians were moving into northern areas where the Aboriginal nations were the majority Aboriginal nations objected to mining, hydroelectric, and pipeline projects on their lands Made their voices heard

10. Aboriginal war veterans faced discrimination upon returning home Believed that they deserved better treatment Aboriginal leaders demanded that Indian Act be changed Changes made in 1951

11. Changes to Indian Act Aboriginal bands gained more authority Aboriginal women won right to vote in band elections Bans on Potlatch and Sun Dance were lifted Band members no longer needed special permits to sell produce Veto right of Indian Affairs minister over band decisions was reduced

12. Right to Vote Inuit got the right to vote in federal elections in 1950 Registered Indians got the right to vote in 1960 End of the 1960s – residential schools were phased out Expo 67 – Aboriginal nations of Canada had their own pavilion

13. White Paper Government published policy paper on Indian affairs in 1969 Recommended slowly eliminating special status of “Indians” set out in the Indian Act

14. Prime Minister Trudeau believed that Aboriginal nations should move toward “full, social, economic, and political participation in Canadian life”

15. Aboriginal Response to White Paper Aboriginal leaders strongly opposed to policy put forward in White Paper Worried that it would mean a loss of their cultures and heritages by absorbing them into mainstream Canadian society Argued they should be treated as independent nations

16. As nations, they had negotiated special protection of their lands and special rights through treaties Believed also in Aboriginal right to lands not covered by treaties Some court decisions came down in their favour One 1965 court ruling said all registered Indians had the right to medical insurance even if they lived off reserves.

17. Government were required to honour treaties within modern times and in modern terms With regard to education, many bands called for community control of their schools for their children 1973 – federal government endorsed schools run by Aboriginal nations

18. New Political Organizations National Indian Council formed in 1961 Later split into National Indian Brotherhood (representing status and treaty groups) and the Native Council of Canada (representing Non-Status Indians and Métis) Both were very involved in the debate over the 1969 White Paper

19. Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry 1974 – Federal government formed a royal commission to study impact of oil and natural gas pipeline on northern environment and Aboriginal peoples who lived there. Judge Thomas Berger travelled through the Yukon and Mackenzie Valley meeting with concerned groups of Aboriginal peoples

20. Recommended in 1977 report that: No pipeline should be built across the extremely sensitive land in the northern Yukon While a pipeline could be built through the Mackenzie Valley, there should be a 10 year delay before construction began – this would give Aboriginal nations time to clear up any land claims in the area

21. Greater Awareness Berger commission made Aboriginal peoples more aware of their rights and more vocal in demanding recognition of them

22. James Bay Agreement Aboriginal rights and land claims gained greater attention in the 1970s In 1973, Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs announced that Canadian government would negotiate land titles with Aboriginal nations For Aboriginal peoples, this was a first step toward recognizing their rights

23. One of the largest land deals centred around Quebec government’s huge hydroelectric project in the James Bay region Project would flood traditional lands of Cree and Inuit

24. They wanted a share of the benefits of project based on their aboriginal right No treaty had been signed in the area

25. Project was put on hold for 2 years James Bay Agreement signed in 1975 In return for 13 844 km² of land (60% of northern Quebec), the Cree and Inuit received: $225 million to be paid over 25 years Hunting, fishing, and trapping rights over 129 500 km² of undeveloped land Ownership of 5500 km² of land

26. James Bay was the first major agreement signed between Aboriginal nations and the Canadian government since the “numbered treaties” in early 1900s Cree and Inuit had negotiated a land claim based on their aboriginal right

27. Constitution Act 1982 Charter of Rights and Freedoms recognized and affirmed existing Aboriginal and treaty rights of the “Native Peoples” (Inuit, Indian, and Métis) Rights include right to control traditional land, protect beliefs and culture, and to have self- government

28. Aboriginal Women 1985 – Charter used to show that provisions of Indian Act which forced Aboriginal women to lose their status if they married non-Aboriginal men were unconstitutional

29. Meech Lake Accord Critics of Meech Lake said the accord ignored the rights of Aboriginal nations, and that it should not pass without including them Aboriginal member of the Manitoba Legislature, Elijah Harper, prevented the legislature from debating and voting on Meech Lake

30. He objected to the fact that the accord did not provide special status for Aboriginal nations as it did for Quebec Meech Lake was defeated on June 23, 1990

31. Standoff at Oka “We are prepared to fight … and, if necessary, to die … in defence of our land.” – Mohawks in Quebec Oka town council wanted to expand golf course on land that was ancestral burial grounds sacred to Mohawk people Courts rejected Mohawks’ claim to land

32. Mohawks reacted by barricading the road to the land and 78-day armed standoff began 100 Quebec provincial police were sent to break through barricade which was maintained mostly by women and children Mohawk men, armed with rifles, were in woods nearby

33. Police wore gas masks and carried assault rifles Armed conflict broke out, shots were fired from both sides, and a police officer was killed Standoff gained national and international attention for concerns of Aboriginal peoples

34. Kahnawake Mohawks of Kahnawake Reserve were outraged at what had happened at Oka Sent up blockades on roads to their reserve These roads included two major highways and part of Mercier Bridge which provided link to Montreal More than 100 chiefs from across gathered at Kahnawake to discuss solidarity with Mohawks

35. Prime Minister Mulroney sent in 4400 soldiers, armoured personnel carriers, and heavy weapons After tense negotiations, barricades to Mercier Bridge came down Standoff ended on September 26 after 11 weeks In 1997, federal government bought the disputed land and returned it to the Mohawk community

36. Ipperwash Ontario – 1995 Members of Kettle and Stoney Point Band occupied Canadian Forces base at Ipperwash near Sarnia

37. Base had been built on land taken from reserve in 1942 Twelve families had been removed from land and their homes destroyed

38. In 1972, Jean Chrétien recommended that the land be returned to the band Land had to be cleaned up – cost about $30 million – government then did nothing After taking over the base in 1995, protestors also occupied nearby provincial park OPP policy had been to avoid confrontation with protestors

39. However, unarmed Aboriginal counsellor, Cecil George, was beaten unconscious Dudley George, who was also unarmed, was shot dead Nick Cattrel, George’s cousin, was shot in the back OPP officer was convicted of manslaughter in George’s death – got a suspended sentence

40. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Set up in 1990 Look at practical solutions to Aboriginal self-government Recommend compensation packages for past abuses Recommendations included spending more than $30 billion over 15 years in compensation packages and self- government initiatives

41. Self-government Aboriginal people would control their own education, resource development, social services, justice system, and health care

42. Statement of Reconciliation Federal government apologized to Aboriginal peoples in 1998 Said it was sorry for policies dating back to Confederation including banning of Potlatch and Sundance and forcing Aboriginal children into residential schools Government pledged $600 million for various self-help programs including $250 million healing fund for those who had suffered at residential schools

43. Nisga’a Treaty 1998 – Nisga’a nation and federal and BC government signed a historic agreement Nisga’a Treaty was first land claims settlement made west of Rockies since 1871 Gave Nisga’a large area of land and financial settlement

44. Nisga’a were granted: 2019 km² of land in the Nass River valley in northwestern BC $253 million over 15 years Right to local self-government and control over natural resources in treaty area Right to own property in their own villages for first time since 1871 Increased share in coastal salmon fishery

45. Nunavut 1999 – new territory of Nunavut came into being Nunavut means “our land” in Inukitut Territory is more than 2 million km² or four times the size of France Small population of 25 000 Gives Inuit, who make up 85% of the population, a self-governing homeland

46. It was the largest peaceful land settlement in history Inuit received title to 350 000 km² and $1.15 billion over 14 years

47. Have hunting, trapping, and fishing rights all over Nunavut Have a share in resource development Nunavut has its own democratically elected Legislative Assembly