1. The general theory of relativity 100 years The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20151 16:15Prof. Tapio Markkanen, What do the stars tell us? The status of astronomy and the knowledge about the universe at the time the theory of relativity was born. Through centuries, astronomy has aimed to explain the motions of celestial bodies. In the early 1900s, the increased knowledge of matter and its interaction with radiation made it possible to raise the question of the buildup of the universe and the celestial structures. 17:10Dr. Hannu Kurki-Suonio, The birth and the essence of the general theory of relativity I aim to describe in an understandable manner what the general theory of relativity is (and what it is not). The general theory of relativity is a creation of Albert Einstein, but not all of his ideas were realized in the final theory. The underlying principle behind general relativity is that the essence of gravity is geometrical in nature. Gravity is not a real force but an apparent force actually explained by the curvature of space-time. I will also describe some classical and modern tests of the theory of relativity. 18:00Coffee break 18:20Dr Tuomo Suntola, What could have been done differently if today’s instruments, observations and knowledge had been available to Einstein? The theories of relativity were based on the relativity and equivalence principles to make the laws of nature look the same for observers in any frame of reference. The laws of nature studied, included the laws of motion by Isaac Newton, Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism, and the phase velocity of light in an interferometric test setup. At Einstein’s time, following the Newtonian world picture, distant space was assumed to be static, and the structure of atoms as well as atomic clocks were unknown. What kind of new perspectives on a restructuring of the theory bases can be derived from today’s knowledge and observations? Is the geometry of space the cause of the effect of gravitation? Do motion and gravitation modify time or affect the characteristic frequency of atomic clocks? 19:15-Discussion on the theory of relativity and its role as the basis of our picture of reality. 20:00

2. The General Theory of Relativity 100 years 18:20Dr Tuomo Suntola What could have been done differently if today’s instruments, observations and knowledge had been available to Einstein? The theories of relativity were based on relativity and equivalence principles to make the laws of nature look the same for observers in any frame of reference. The laws of nature tested included the laws of motion by Isaac Newton, Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism and the phase velocity of light in an interferometric test setup. At Einstein’s time, following the Newtonian world picture, distant space was assumed to be static, the structure of atoms as well as atomic clocks were unknown. What kind of new perspectives on a restructuring of the theory bases can be derived from today’s knowledge and observations? Is the geometry of space the cause of the effect of gravitation? Do motion and gravitation modify time or do they affect the characteristic frequency of atomic clocks? The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20152

3. What could have been done differently if today’s instruments, observations and knowledge had been available to Einstein? 1.The principle of relativity and the laws of nature. 2.What has been observed regarding the behavior of clocks during the last 100 years? 3.What does quantum mechanics tell us about the characteristic frequency of atomic clocks? 4.From motion to gravitation or from gravitation to motion? 5.The equivalence principle or the conservation of energy? Cosmological predictions. Tuomo Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20153

4. Special relativity1905 Henri Poincaré: Electromagnetic mass E=mc 2 Walter Kaufmann 1902 Maxwell’s equations and the constancy of the velocity of light are established by time dilation and length contraction (1899/1904) Hendrik Lorentz: Olinto De Pretto E=mc 2 The principle of relativity, the constancy of the velocity of light The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20154

5. How does the principle of relativity re-establish the Newtonian law of motion, F=ma ? v c t Observations, Kaufmann 1902 v c t Newton: v = a  t SR: v c t’ The principle of relativity is the requirement that the equations describing the laws of physics have the same form in all admissible frames of reference. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20155

6. The general theory of relativity 100 years Do we modify our observational reality in such a way that the laws of nature which we regard as real appear unchanged… … or … … should we identify the laws of nature that apply in our natural observational reality where time and location have unequivocal meanings? The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20156

7. The fourth dimension – the concept of space-time What is the distance travelled in a space-time frame of reference, which has velocity v 0,1,2 relative to an observer? Herman Minkowski ”Minkowski space” (1908) ds 2 = dx 2 +dy 2 +dz 2 – (icdt’) 2 Henri Poincaré: Lorentz-transformation can be described as a rotation of the coordinate system (1905) v 0 =00<v 1 <c 0≪v2<c0≪v2<c Maxwell’s equations and the constancy of the velocity of light are established by time dilation and length contraction (1899/1904) Hendrik Lorentz: The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20157

8. A B The principle of relativity The principle of relativity, the constancy of the velocity of light A B The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20158

9. What has been observed? The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 20159

10. Velocity – relative to what? 1970s >> Global Positioning System (GPS) ”Rest clock” in the laboratory 1938 (Ives, Stilwell), ion beam (H 2 +, H 3 + ) ”canal-ray”Ives, Stilwell 1960s Mössbauer experimentsMössbauer f e 1976 Gravity Probe A Hydrogen maser to 10 000 km. Maser transmitter receiver f' f" Maser transmitter ”Rest clock” relative to the rotation of the Earth 1971 (Hafele-Keating) Cesium-clocks in airplanes. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201510

11. Velocity – relative to what? Earth energy frame Laboratory energy frame ”Rest clock” in Solar frame Pioneer spacecraft Solar energy frame The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201511

12. The general theory of relativity 100 years What does the quantum mechanical solution of the characteristic frequency of atomic oscillators tell us? Are the different frequencies of clocks due to different flow of time they experience … … or … … does the state of motion and gravitation affect the characteristic frequency of the clocks? The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201512

13. Which quantities determine the characteristic frequency? The energy states of a hydrogen atom: Characteristic frequency: The Planck constant The fine structure constant The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201513

14. Planck’s equation Radiation is emitted as quanta: The power of radiation can be solved from Maxwell’s equations: The energy in a cycle of radiation is solved by multiplying the power by the cycle time : The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201514

15. Planck’s equation B  r E E  z0z0 Planck’s equation describes the energy emitted by the transition of a single electron to a radiation cycle in a ”quantum antenna” The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201515

16. Which quantities do determine the characteristic frequency? The energy states of a hydrogen atom: Characteristic frequency: The Planck constant The fine structure constant The frequency of an atomic clock is directly proportional to the velocity of light! The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201516

17. The general theory of relativity 100 years The characteristic frequency of an atomic clock is directly proportional to the velocity of light and the rest mass of an electron → ”the rest momentum”. Motion increases the effective inertial mass observed in the momentum in space directions … … does motion affect the rest mass and the rest momentum ? The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201517

18. Space-time or 4D momentum? Herman Minkowski ”Minkowski space” Walter Kaufmann Henri Poincaré: Lorentz-transformation can be described as a rotation of the coordinate system (1905) The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201518

19. The general theory of relativity 100 years The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201519 Motion reduces the rest momentum of an atomic oscillator and, accordingly, its characteristic frequency by factor The slowed frequency of a clock in motion can be seen as a direct consequence of the energy state of the clock in motion!

20. The system of nested energy frames The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201520

21. Motion, as an energy state, is not relative to an observer, … but … to the state of rest in the system supplying the energy of motion. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201521 The general theory of relativity 100 years

22. Velocity – relative to what? The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201522 Earth energy frame Laboratory energy frame Rest clock in the Solar frame Pioneer spacecraft Solar energy frame

23. From motion to gravitation. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201523

24. From motion to gravitation: The equivalence principle Einstein – Minkowski - Schwarzschild The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201524 The equivalence principle: a inert = a grav Newton’s energy of free fall   r : Herman Minkowski ”Minkowski space” Karl Schwarzschild ”Schwarzschild space” r M The kinetic energy gained is equal to the gravitational energy released

25. From motion to gravitation The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201525 The 4D geometry of space as derived from the gravitational energy released in the buildup of mass centers in space.

26. Motion in the 4th dimension The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201526 Motion in the fourth dimension leads to the conclusion of spherically closed space as the 3-”surface” of a 4D sphere. In such a structure the vector sum of local rest momentums in whole space is zero.

27. and further... “...One intriguing suggestion is that the universe has a structure analogous to that of a spherical surface. If we move in any direction on such a surface, we never meet a boundary or end, yet the surface is bounded and finite. It might be that our three-dimensional space is such a thing, a tridimensional surface of a four sphere. The arrangement and distribution of galaxies in the world that we see would then be something analogous to a distribution of spots on a spherical ball.” In his lectures on gravitation in the early 1960s Richard Feynman (1918–1988) pondered the structure of space: “... If now we compare the total gravitational energy E g = GM tot 2 /R to the total rest energy of the universe, E rest = M tot c 2, lo and behold, we get the amazing result that GM tot 2 /R = M tot c 2, so that the total energy of the universe is zero. — It is exciting to think that it costs nothing to create a new particle, since we can create it at the center of the universe where it will have a negative gravitational energy equal to M tot c 2. — Why this should be so is one of the great mysteries — and therefore one of the important questions of physics. After all, what would be the use of studying physics if the mysteries were not the most important things to investigate.” 27

28. The effect of local gravitation and motion on the rest energy The combined effects of motion and gravitation on the rest energy The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201528

29. The system of nested energy frames Homogeneous space relative to gravitational center M 1 Homogeneous space relative to gravitational center M 2 M1M1 M2M2 M3M3 R1R1 Homogeneous space relative to gravitational center M 3 The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201529

30. Velocity and gravitational state – relative to what? Earth energy frame Laboratory energy frame Rest clock in the Solar frame Pioneer spacecraft Solar energy frame The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201530

31. The system of nested energy frames Hypothetical homogeneous space The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201531

32. What is it all about in relativity? A holistic perspective on space as an energy system relates the local to the whole via the system of nested energy frames. Relativity tells about the finiteness of the total energy in space. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201532

33. What is the fate of the famous equation The reformulation taking into account the energy structures in space: where is the R 4 -velocity of space is the local 4D-velocity (=local velocity of light) is the local rest mass … more complex, but it returns observables to the natural observational reality, where both time and location have univocal meanings – and – cancels the need for a separate relativity theory. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201533

34. Consequences of the relativity and equivalence principles Relativity principle Equivalence principle The predicted angular sizes of distant objects appear oversized. Observed magnitudes of distant objects are moved to ”emitters’ rest frame”. Orbits in the vicinity of black holes become unstable. The concept time is confusing. Distant space appears ”Euclidean”. The characteristic frequency of an atomic clock is determined by the energy state of the clock. Energy principle Orbits in the vicinity of black holes are stable. The precise prediction for magnitudes is obtained without additional parameters like dark energy. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201534

35. Space as an energy system The study of space as an energy system produces precise predictions for cosmological observables without additional parameters like density parameters or the dark energy. Also, it gives an understandable picture of the energy buildup in space; the rest energy of mass is obtained against release of gravitational energy in a contraction phase before the singularity … … in the ongoing expansion phase, the “the energy debt” is paid back to gravitation. The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201535

36. contractionexpansion The zero-energy balance of motion and gravitation contraction The energy of gravitation The energy of motion time expansion The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201536

37. The general theory of relativity 100 years The energy based analysis would not have been possible in the early 1900s. The re-evaluation of the theory structures has been made possible by the overall scientific development enabled by the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics and the dramatically improved observation technology. Congratulations to the 100-year old senior! The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy: Models in physics and cosmology, Helsinki 27-28.9.2010T. Suntola The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, The House of Sciences, Helsinki November 10, 201537