1. Ch. 11: Introduction to Genetics “When in doubt, Punnett!”

2. Chapter 11 Outline 11-1: The Work of Gregor Mendel –Gregor Mendel’s Peas –Genes and Dominance –Segregation 11-2: Probability and Punnett Squares –Genetics and Probability –Punnett Squares –Probability and Segregation –Probabilities Predict Averages

3. Chapter 11 Outline 11-3: Exploring Mendelian Genetics –Independent Assortment –A summary of Mendel’s Principles –Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles –Applying Mendel’s Principles –Genetics and the Environment 11-4: Meiosis –Chromosome Number –Phases of Meiosis –Gamete Formation –Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis 11-5 Linkage and Gene maps –Gene Linkage –Gene Maps

4. 11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel Every Living thing has a set of characteristics inherited from its parent or parents. Genetics: The scientific study of Hereditiy

5. Gregor Mendel’s Peas Gregor Mendel was an Austrian Monk, and he is called the “Father of Genetics” because of his research at a monastery He carried out his work on pea plants. The Male parts of plants produce pollen, which contain sperm. Female flower parts produce egg cells. When male and female reproductive cells join (fertilization), a new cell is produced.

6. Gregor Mendel’s Peas Pea Plants are normally self-pollinating (fertilization happens on the same flower). This means they have only one parent and show all the characteristics of that parent Mendel worked with true-breeding peas –True Breeding: If allowed to self-pollinate, they would produce offspring identical to themselves. –Ex: Tall Peas plants only produce Tall plants

7. Gregor Mendel’s Peas Mendel wanted to produce new cells (seeds) by joining male and female reproductive structures from two different pea plants. To do this, he had to prevent self- pollination. (So, he removed the Male parts) He then put some pollen from one plant onto another pea plant. –Cross-pollination: produces seed that have two different plants as parents.

8. Genes and Dominance Mendel studied seven different traits in pea plants. –Traits: a specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another Ex: Seed Color or Plant Height Each original pair of Pea plants were called the P (parent) generation and their offspring were called the F 1 (first filial) generation. –Hybrids: The offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

9. Genes and Dominance The Results of Mendel’s Crosses: –The F 1 generation did not look like a blend of the two parents. The offspring had the trait of only one of the parents. Conclusions: 1.Biological inheritance is determined by factors that are passed from one generation to the next. (Today we call those factors genes Genes exist in different forms. One gene controls height (tall or short pea plants). The different forms of genes are called alleles.

10. Genes and Dominance 2.The Principle of dominance: Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive Dominant alleles will always shown Recessive alleles will only be seen when there are no dominant alleles present EX: Tall is dominant over short in peas

11. Segregation After this work, Mendel had another question: Had the recessive alleles disappeared in the F 1 plants? –To answer this, he allowed F 1 plants to self- pollinate and produce the next generation: F 2 The results of the F 1 cross: –The Traits controlled by recessive alleles reappeared in about ¼ of the F 2 plants.

12. Segregation Explaining these results: –Mendel assumed that a dominant allele had masked the corresponding recessive allele. The reappearance of the recessive alleles indicated that at some point the allele for shortness (for example) had separated from the allele for tallness. –Segregation: the separation of alleles

13. Segregation How did this Segregation happen? –Alleles segregated from each other during the formation of sex cells, or gametes. –For example, in a cross of tall x short pea plant, the F 1 plants have one allele for tallness and one for shortness. But when the F 1 plants to produce gametes (sex cells that will fuse with other gametes to produce embryos), the two alleles segregate from each other so that each gamete only carries a single allele (either the tall or short in our example).

14. Genetic and Probability Probability: the likelihood that an event will occur Mendel realized he could apply the principles of probability to explain the results of genetic cross. Example of probability: Coin Flipping –Each time you flip a coin, you have a 1 in 2 chance of getting heads, and a 1 in 2 chance of getting tails. This probability is ½ or 50%.

15. Genetics and Probability What is the probability of getting 3 heads in a row? ½ x ½ x ½ = 1/8 The principles of probability can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses.

16. Punnett Squares Punnett square: a diagram used to show gene combinations that can result from a cross. The letters in the Punnett square represent alleles.

17. Punnett Square

18. Punnett squares Homozygous: organisms that have two identical alleles for a trait. Heterozygous: organisms that have two different alleles for a trait Phenotype: physical characteristics (what you see) Genotype: the actual genetic makeup –Example: the phenotype of a tall plant is “tall” and the genotype is TT or Tt The data from Mendel’s experiment fit the model of Punnett squares. –When he crossed two heterozygotes (F 1 generation) he got a 3:1 ratio.

19. Exploring Mendelian Genetics After showing that alleles segregate, Mendel wondered if the segregation of one pair of alleles affects another pair of alleles Independent Assortment –To figure this out, Mendel performed an experiment to follow two different colors as they pass from generation to generation

20. Independent Assortment Two-Factor crosses: –Mendel crossed true breeding round, yellow seed plant (RRYY) with wrinkled, green pea plants (rryy). All of the F 1 offspring were round and yellow Punnett square for this cross: dihybrid cross

21. RrYy x RrYy

22. Independent Assortment The results show an F 1 generation of all RrYy. Then, the F 1 self-pollinated and produced the following results: 9 round yellow: 3 round green: 3 wrinkled yellow: 1 wrinkled green This clearly meant that the alleles for seed shape and seed color segregated separately of each other

23. Independent Assortment Independent assortment: the independent segregation of genes during the formation of gametes. This helps account for genetic variation

24. Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles There are several exceptions to Mendel’s Principles. Not all genes show dominant or recessive patterns. Many genes have more than two alleles. Incomplete Dominance –One allele is not dominant over the other. The heterozygous phenotype is a blend of the two parent phenotypes. –Ex. Four o’clock flowers: RR (red) x WW (white) produces an F 1 generation of all RW (pink)

25. Incomplete Dominance

26. Codominance Both alleles contribute to the phenotype. –Ex. Chickens with black feathers crossed with chickens with white feathers produces black and white speckled feathers.

27. Multiple Alleles More than two alleles for a gene Ex. Coat color in rabbits, blood type for humans.

28. Polygenic Traits Traits controlled by two or more genes. Usually show a wide range of phenotypes because of this –Ex. Human Skin Color

29. Applying Mendel’s Principles Mendel’s principles apply not only to plants but to animals (including humans!) Thomas Hunt Morgan tested genetic principles on fruit flies, called Drosophila. After him, many other scientists followed in the research of genetics.

30. Genetics and the Environment The environment also influences phenotype. It is not determined by genes alone. –Ex. Plant genes affect their height and color, but climate and soil conditions also affect the same things

31. Meiosis Mendel’s principles of genetics require two things: 1.Each organism must inherit a single copy of every gene from both its parents. 2.When an organism produces its own gametes, those two sets of genes must be separated from each other, so that each gametes only have one set of genes. Thus, there must be some process that separates the two sets of genes. Mendel didn’t know it, but there IS a process that does this, and it’s called Meiosis

32. Chromosome Number To illustrate this process we are going to look at the chromosome of Drosophila. A body cell in an adult fruit fly has 8 chromosomes (4 from mom and 4 from dad) –Homologous chromosomes: a pair of chromosomes that contain similar information (1 from mom and 1 from dad)

33. Chromosome Number So the Drosophila have 4 homologous pairs of chromosomes. Diploid: a cell that has both sets of chromosomes (the one from each parent) –Symbol for a diploid cell is 2N For Drosophila 2N=8. Diploid cells contain two complete sets of chromosomes. The Gametes (sex cells) of organisms only contain one set of chromosomes so they can fuse with other gametes to make a complete set. Cells with only one set of chromosomes are called haploid (N). For Drosophila, N=4.

34. Phases of Meiosis Overview –Meiosis is a process of division in which number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell –Two divisions of Meiosis: Meiosis I Meiosis II

35. Meiosis Meiosis I –Before the start of this phase, the DNA is replicated. The cells divide in a process similar to mitosis. EXCEPT in metaphase, homologous pairs line up at the equator. –Tetrad: 2 homologous chromosomes paired together (made up of 4 chromatids b/c each chromosome has replicated)

36. Meiosis When a tetrad forms at the center of a cell, some chromatids exchange small portions of their DNA. This is called crossing-over. –This produces new combinations of alleles and leads to genetic variation. The result: Homologous pairs separate and make two cells each with only one set of genes now (but each chromosome still has two sister chromatids) Another division is necessary to separate the chromatids.

37. Meiosis II There is no replication before this division. Again this process is just like mitosis. The chromosomes line up at the equator and sister chromatids separate. The result: A total of four HAPLOID daughter called gametes. The purpose: To make cells with only one set of genes so it can fuse with another gamete to make a zygote.

38. Meiosis I Section 11-4 Figure 11-15 Meiosis

39. Meiosis I Section 11-4 Figure 11-15 Meiosis Meiosis I

40. Section 11-4 Figure 11-15 Meiosis Meiosis I

41. Section 11-4 Figure 11-15 Meiosis Meiosis I

42. Section 11-4 Figure 11-15 Meiosis Meiosis I

43. Meiosis II Meiosis I results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original. Prophase IIMetaphase IIAnaphase IITelophase II The chromosomes line up in a similar way to the metaphase stage of mitosis. The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell. Meiosis II results in four haploid (N) daughter cells. Section 11-4 Figure 11-17 Meiosis II

44. Meiosis II Meiosis I results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original. Prophase IIMetaphase IIAnaphase IITelophase II The chromosomes line up in a similar way to the metaphase stage of mitosis. The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell. Meiosis II results in four haploid (N) daughter cells. Section 11-4 Figure 11-17 Meiosis II

45. Meiosis II Meiosis I results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original. Prophase IIMetaphase IIAnaphase IITelophase II The chromosomes line up in a similar way to the metaphase stage of mitosis. The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell. Meiosis II results in four haploid (N) daughter cells. Section 11-4 Figure 11-17 Meiosis II

46. Meiosis II Meiosis I results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original. Prophase IIMetaphase IIAnaphase IITelophase II The chromosomes line up in a similar way to the metaphase stage of mitosis. The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell. Meiosis II results in four haploid (N) daughter cells. Section 11-4 Figure 11-17 Meiosis II

47. Meiosis II Meiosis I results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original. Prophase IIMetaphase IIAnaphase IITelophase II The chromosomes line up in a similar way to the metaphase stage of mitosis. The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell. Meiosis II results in four haploid (N) daughter cells. Section 11-4 Figure 11-17 Meiosis II

48. Gamete Formation In male animals, the haploid gametes are called sperm. In females, they are called eggs. In females, of the four gametes produced by one division only one is involved in reproduction. The others are called polar bodies.

49. Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells. –Body uses these cells in growth and replacement of other cells Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. –Body uses these in reproduction

50. 11-5 Linkage and Gene Maps Since it is chromosomes that assort independently, individual genes do not! Genes that travel on the same chromosome are “linked genes”, because they will be inherited together (unless crossing over happens in that area)

51. Linkage and Gene Maps The farther apart two genes are on a chromosome, the more likely it is that they will become unlinked by crossing over. –Gene Map: a diagram showing the relative locations of genes on a chromosome

52. Gene Map Exact location on chromosomesChromosome 2