1. EMT 462 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY Part 2: Instrumentation By: En. Muhammad Mahyiddin Ramli

2. Part 2: Instrumentation 2 Syllabus Chapter 4: DC and AC Motors Chapter 5: DC and AC Bridges Chapter 6: Sensors and Transducers Instrumentation

3. Part 2: Instrumentation 3 Basic Concept of Instrumentation and Measurement  Instrument is a device that transform a physical variable of interest (measurand) into a form that is suitable for recording (measurement).

4. Part 2: Instrumentation 4 Introduction 3 Basics Function of Instrument Indicating Recording Controlling Classification of Instruments Analog Instrument Digital Instrument

5. Part 2: Instrumentation 5 Simple Instrument Model

6. Part 2: Instrumentation 6 Instrumentation System Physical Parameter: Temperature Pressure Velocity Force etc. Sensor / Transducer Bridge Amplifier Filter Signal Converter: ADC DAC FVC etc. Display: OSC Meter Plotter Computer

7. Part 2: Instrumentation 7 Two Basic Characteristic of an Instrument Static characteristic – in generally for instrument which are used to measure an unvarying process condition. Dynamic characteristic

8. Part 2: Instrumentation 8 Two Basic Characteristic of an Instrument Several terms of static characteristic: Instrument - A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of a quantity under observation. Measurement - The process of determining the amount, degree, capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units being used. Accuracy - The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the expected (desired) value. Resolution -The smallest change in a measured variable to which instrument will response. Precision -A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e. successive readings do not differ or the consistency of the instrument output for a given value of input. Expected value -The design value that is “most probable value” that calculations indicate one should expect to measure. Sensitivity - The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change

9. Part 2: Instrumentation 9 Error In Measurement Error: The difference between the true value (expected value) of the measurand and the measured value indicated by the instrument Error may be expressed either as a absolute error or as percentage of error. Absolute errors: e = |Y n - X n | WhereY n = expected value X n = measured value

10. Part 2: Instrumentation 10 Error In Measurement Absolute Error Expected Value X 100 % Y n – X n Y n X 100 % or Percentage Error: Relative Accuracy, A: A = 1 - Y n – X n Y n

11. Part 2: Instrumentation 11 Error In Measurement Percentage relative accuracy, a = 100 % - Percentage Error = A x 100 %

12. Part 2: Instrumentation 12 Example 1 The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 90 V. However, the measurement gives a value of 89 V. Calculate: a) Absolute error b) Percentage error c) Relative accuracy d) Percentage of accuracy

13. Part 2: Instrumentation 13 Solution Expected value of voltage across a resistor, Yn = 90 V Measured value of voltage across a resistor, Xn = 89 V a)Absolute error, e = Yn – Xn = 90 – 89 = 1V b) Percentage error, e = = Y n – X n Y n X100 % 90 – 89 90 X100 % = 1.1111 %

14. Part 2: Instrumentation 14 Solution c) Relative accuracy, A = 1 - Y n – X n Y n = 1 – 0.0111 = 0.9889 d) Percentage of accuracy, a = 100 x 0.9889 = 98.8900 % or a = 100 % - 1.1111 % = 98.8889 %

15. Part 2: Instrumentation 15 Types of Error Gross Errors - Are generally the fault of the person using instruments and are due to such things as incorrect reading of instruments, incorrect recording of experimental data or incorrect use of instrument. Systematic Errors - Are due to problems with instrument, environment effects or observational errors.  Instrument Errors - May be due to friction in the bearings of the meter movement, incorrect spring tension, improper calibration or faulty instruments.  Environmental Errors – Environmental conditions in which instrument are used may cause errors. Subjecting instruments to harsh environment such high temperature, pressure, humidity, strong electrostatic or electromagnetic fields, may have detrimental effects, thereby causing error.  Observational Errors – Are those errors introduced by observer. Two most common observational errors are probably the parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale and errors of estimation when obtaining a reading from a scale meter.

16. Part 2: Instrumentation 16 Types of Error Random Errors – the accumulation of a large number of small effects and may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed statistically.

17. Part 2: Instrumentation 17 Standard and Calibration 4 types of standards of measurement:  International standards – British Standard Institution (BSI), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), International Organization for Standardization (ISO).  Primary standards – SIRIM, Local University, Industry  Secondary standards – SIRIM  Working standards – SIRIM, Local University, Industrial Calibration: the act or result of quantitative comparison between a known standard and the output of measuring system measuring the same quantity.