1. How shall we conserve wildlife without evicting ourselves Aldo Leopold

2. Wildlife & Agriculture What are the historical & contemporary relationships between wildlife and agricultural practices? What are the types of farmland habitat & how do they affect wildlife? What are the pros & cons of various farmland management practices?

3. Wildlife & Agriculture What is agroforestry? Ecological sacrifice Can farms & wildlife coexist? Who cares?

4. Wildlife & Agriculture History Positive & negative impacts of agriculture Wildlife Abundance Pre-settlement1900s2000s Forest spp. Farmland spp. (U.S Fish & Wildlife Service) East

5. Wildlife & Agriculture History Changes in farming since the mid-1900s –Small family farms → large monocultures Diversity “Clean” farming Increased use of pesticides & herbicides 1900 2000 Farmland wildlife: prairie chickens, cottontails, northern bobwhite, & pheasants Farm size, field size, % row crops, use of pesticides & herbicides, & disturbance % hayfields & pasture, fencerows, wetlands, edge, & diversity of land use

6. Wildlife & Agriculture History Changes in farming Small family farms → large monocultures Belize?

7. Wildlife & Agriculture History Changes in farming Small family farms → large monocultures

8. Wildlife & Agriculture History Land clearing and Slash & Burn Agriculture –U.S. –Tropics E.g., Belize –Community Baboon Sanctuary »Milpa’s »Livestock production –Other parts of the world –Leopold: Marshland Elegy USDA – Forest Service

9. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Conservation v. conventional tillage of row crops –Crop residue & disturbance Conventional-till (<5%; high) Reduced-till (~20%; medium) No-till (~90%; low) –Often drilled Food, cover, disturbance, & erosion USDA photo by: Tim McCabe

10. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Conservation v. conventional tillage of row crops SepAugJulJunMayAprMarFebJanOctNovDec Seasonal distribution of active nesting Western meadowlark Vesper Sparrow Horned lark Ring-necked pheasant Morning dove Killdeer Dickcissel Grasshopper sparrow Potential nesting periods Disk Cultivate Harrow Plant Fertilize Hoe Cultivate Disk Fertilize Plant Cultivate Plant Fertilize Herbicide Sequence of field operations Conventional tillage Reduced tillage No-tillage Disk Best (1986)

11. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Conservation v. conventional tillage of row crops –Ecological traps (Basore et al. 1983) Nest outcomes (# nests) of 16 bird species in Iowa crop fields Nest fateNo-till CornConventional-till Corn Successful102 Predation81 Desertion21 Weather00 Farming implements00 Cowbird parasitism10 Unknown01 Total215

12. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Crop rotation –Ecofallow –Edges, burning, no-till, & diversity Alfalfa Wheat Fallow Corn Alfalfa Wheat Fallow CornAlfalfa Wheat Fallow Corn Alfalfa Wheat Fallow Corn Year 1 Year 4Year 3 Year 2

13. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Cover crops –Erosion prevention –Soil development & enrichment N-fixers –Food & cover E.g., winter wheat & rye USDA Photo

14. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Contour & strip farming –Erosion control –Edge & diversity Rotate USDA photo by: Tim McCabe USDA Photo

15. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Field borders –Narrow strips (2-5 m) of permanent vegetation Grasses & legumes Sometimes 2-5 rows of crops left standing Food & cover Corridors & diversity Erosion control Fire breaks –Field corners USDA photo by: Tim McCabe

16. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Border-edge cuts –Soft edges/ecotones –Food & cover –Diversity

17. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Food plots –Ideally: manage habitat to provide food without plots –Size, shape, & location –>3% of area depending on native food –Composition: species & needs –Attract predators & pests –Disease issues Lure crops –Dispersion of wildlife

18. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Odd areas Leopold: Prairie Birthday USDA photo by: Tim McCabe

19. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Linear habitats –Roadways –Fencerows –Hedgerows –Shelterbelts –Food, cover, edge, & corridors –Interspersion & connectivity –Wind & erosion –Width, location, & orientation USDA Photo by: Bill Tarpenning

20. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Pasture & hayfield management –Rotational grazing –Species composition Monocultures Improved/tame grass –Food, cover, & erosion –Grass example

21. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Management of streams, ponds, & wetlands –Fencing –Alternative water sources –Erosion & sedimentation

22. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Agricultural chemicals –Effects Direct & indirect –Biomagnification –Habitat –Endocrine disruption Soils & weather –Persistence –Spread USDA Photo

23. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Fertilizer –Direct & indirect effects –Pros & cons (Scott Roberts, Mississippi State University, www.forestryimages.org)

24. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Pesticides –Chlorinated hydrocarbons E.g., DDT & Dieldrin –Organophosphates E.g., Malathion –Carbamates E.g., Fenoxycarb –Pyrethrins –Direct & indirect effects –Integrated pest management (IPM) Biological, chemical, & cultural methods (Alton N. Sparks, Jr., The University of Georgia, www.forestryimages.org)

25. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Herbicides –Weeds are our friends! –E.g., Agent Orange & Round-up –Pros & cons (Tom Landis, USDA Forest Service, www.forestryimages.org)

26. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Water management –Crop irrigation –Livestock –Wildlife Pros & cons USDA photo by: Tim McCabe

27. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Organic farming –Tillage, herbicide, pesticide, & fertilizer? –Increased diversity –Wildlife panacea? –Pros & cons Mhof.net

28. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Landscape diversity –Create small “family farms” –Field size, types of crops, fallow areas, pasture, non-cultivated areas, interspersion, disturbance, etc. USDA photo by: Ron Nichols

29. Wildlife & Agriculture Farming Techniques Agroforestry –Silvopasture

30. Wildlife & Agriculture Farm Programs 1985 Food Security Act (The Farm Bill) –USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS; formerly the Soil Conservation Service) –USDA-Farm Service Agency (FSA) Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) –“Set-aside” programs Swampbuster provision Sodbuster provision USDA photo by: Tim McCabe

31. Wildlife & Agriculture Farm Programs 1985 Food Security Act (The Farm Bill) 1990, 1995, 2002, & 2008 amendments Currently?

32. Wildlife & Agriculture Farm Programs 2008 Food, Conservation, & Energy Act (The Farm Bill) - FSA Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) Grassland Reserve Program* Public Access & Habitat Incentive Program –Now Public Access program *jointly administered with NRCS

33. Wildlife & Agriculture Farm Programs 2008 Food, Conservation, & Energy Act (The Farm Bill) - NRCS Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (WHIP) Conservation of Private Grazing Land Conservation Stewardship Program Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) Farmland and Ranch Lands Protection Program

34. Wildlife & Agriculture Farm Programs 2008 Food, Conservation, & Energy Act (The Farm Bill) - NRCS Grassland Reserve Program* Cooperative Conservation Partnership Program * jointly administered with FSA

35. Wildlife & Agriculture Farm Programs US Fish & Wildlife Service-Partners for Fish & Wildlife State Programs –FWC Florida Landowner Assistance Program (LAP) –UF/IFAS Cooperative Extension Service

36. Wildlife & Agriculture Conflicts Crop depredation Livestock depredation –USDA-APHIS Wildlife Services Annual impact in the billions! Food costs Wildlife values, habitat, & populations USDA Photo

37. Wildlife & Agriculture What about declining farmland wildlife? –Exotics E.g., ring-necked pheasants –Artificially high populations in the East? E.g., bobolinks, prairie chickens, cottontails Wildlife Abundance Pre-settlement1900s2000s East

38. Wildlife & Agriculture Can farmers & wildlife coexist? Of crane’s & caracara’s Farmers actually like wildlife! Incentives! –Hunting, ecotourism (e.g., Baboon Sanctuary), etc.

39. Wildlife & Agriculture Are farms needed for wildlife conservation? –East African linkages

40. Wildlife & Agriculture Ecological sacrifice

41. Wildlife & Agriculture Food, cover, water, & space Disturbance & diversity Leopold’s Tools –“game can be restored by the creative use of the same tools which have heretofore destroyed it--axe, plow, cow, fire, and gun”