1. Social Psych AP Psych

2. Social Psych The branch of psychology that deals with how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by our social interactions with others and the culture in which we live

3. Factors Influencing Attraction Proximity – One’s actual nearness to others in terms of housing, work, school – Frequency of contact – Ex. If our class was stranded on an island together, even if you don’t find one person in here attractive, eventually you would because of your proximity to them

4. Factors Influencing Attraction Physical Attractiveness – Major determinant of initial attraction Men put a greater emphasis on it than women do Becomes less important over time of knowing an individual

5. Factors Influencing Attraction Competence – We are more attracted to imperfect people who demonstrated competence or talent in some area We like people who have some flaws, but at the same time are skilled in something

6. Factors Influencing Attraction Similarity – We are attracted to people who are like us in background, age, interests, attitudes and beliefs. – The greater the likeness, the greater the chance the relationship will endure Opposites may attract, but common ground is necessary to anchor a relationship Compromise is essential

7. Factors Influencing Attraction Self-Disclosure – We tend to be attracted to people who self- disclose (offer information about themselves to others) BUT, not too much – Too much unprovoked self-disclosure is definitely unattractive

8. Factors Influencing Attraction Social Reward Theory – We tend to like people who make us feel “rewarded” in some way But, the rewards must exceed the costs – Ex. Associating with attractive people can be socially rewarding

9. Psych of Attraction First impressions matter, as we tend to form impressions of others quickly and they tend to be long lasting and difficult to change Revealing too much about yourself when first meeting someone can convey a negative impression – People tend to be perceived as less secure, less mature, and poorly adjusted

10. Psych of Attraction We tend to draw conclusions about people based on superficial cues (clothes, piercings, hairstyle) which are important to us Our physical appearance affects how other perceive us

11. Psych of Attraction We tend to like people who like us back (no duh) How attractive we view a person depends to some extent on our feelings about that person – Positive feelings = more attractive; negative feelings = less attractive

12. Psych of Attraction People tend to believe that attractive people are also more intelligent and likeable – Attractive people are less lonely, more popular, less socially anxious, and more sexually experienced Looking attractive is more of an influence on a woman’s fate than on a man’s fate

13. Psych of Attraction Couples tend to be matched in attractiveness – If not, then the less attractive partner often has a compensating asset Money, power, fame, privilege, etc. When a person forms an initial impression of someone, they may act toward the person in a way that mirrors that impression – This may lead that person to behave in a way that confirms the expectation (Self-Fulfilling Prophecy)

14. Love Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love – There are SEVEN types of love relationships, each of which includes combinations of three components: Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment Intimacy – Refers to a couple’s closeness, to their mutual concern and sharing of feelings and resources; making each other feel valued and cared for; may involve making personal sacrifices

15. Love Passion – Refers to romance and sexual feelings; preoccupation with the loved one; desire for exclusiveness Commitment – Refers to a couple’s decision to enhance and maintain the relationship “for better or worse”

16. Love Passion is most crucial in short-term relationships, while intimacy and commitment are more important in enduring relationships

17. Love Consummate Love – The ideal form of love that combines all three components Difficult to attain and maintain Liking – Intimacy alone – True friendships without passion or long-term commitments

18. Love Companionate Love – Intimacy and Commitment – Long-term committed friendships such as marriage in which the passion has faded Empty Love – Commitment alone – Commitment to remain together without intimacy or passion

19. Love Fatuous Love – Passion and Commitment – Commitment based on passion, but without the time for intimacy to develop – Ex. A whirlwind courtship Infatuation – Passion alone – Passionate, obsessive love at first sight

20. Love Romantic Love – Intimacy and passion – Lovers are physically and emotionally attracted to each other, but without commitment – Ex. A summer romance ( or Summer Love, if you would)

21. Love

22. Growth of Love

23. Attributions – Explanations one makes to explain one’s own or another’s behavior People tend to explain behavior in terms of INTERNAL (within the person) or EXTERNAL (outside the person) causes

24. Attributions Internal (Dispositional) attributions – Ex. Sally was selected MVP because of her great basketball talent. – Ex. George came in 2 nd in the spelling bee because he didn’t know how to spell the final word External (Situational) attributions – Ex. Sally was selected MVP because her dad is the coach – Ex. George came in 2 nd in the spelling bee because the judges were unfair

25. Biases in the ATTRIBUTIONAL PROCESS Self-Serving Bias – A tendency to attribute our successes to internal (dispositional) factors and our failures to external (situational) factors Ex. I won today because I am great; I lost today because the referee sucks and missed important calls Most common in individualistic cultures

26. Biases in the ATTRIBUTIONAL PROCESS Fundamental Attribution Error – When one overestimates INTERNAL influences and underestimates or ignores EXTERNAL influences when explaining people’s unacceptable behavior – Ex. Blaming an unemployed person by saying that he is lazy Could very well be an extremely hard working individual who has fallen on tough times

27. Biases in the ATTRIBUTIONAL PROCESS Actor-Observer Bias – The tendency to, when we are the actor, attribute our own negative behavior to external causes (environment, circumstance, etc.) – When we are the observer, however, of someone else’s negative behavior, we tend to attribute their behavior to Internal (personality) causes Ex. I was unprepared for the exam because there was a family emergency last night, but Tasha was unprepared because she forgot to study Ex. Other people who don’t leave tips in restaurants are cheapskates; but when I don’t leave tips, the service is really bad

28. Biases in the ATTRIBUTIONAL PROCESS Blaming the Victim – When we’re unable to help the victims of misfortune, we tend to blame them for causing their own misfortune, or for not taking steps to prevent or avoid it Partly due to the Just-World Hypothesis: the tendency to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve and deserve what they get Partly due to the fact that we blame the victim as a way of making ourselves believe that “it” cannot happen to us

29. Biases in the ATTRIBUTIONAL PROCESS Modesty Bias – The tendency to blame ourselves for our failures, attributing them to internal, personal causes – Along with the tendency to downplay our successes by attributing them to external, situational causes Most common in collectivist cultures

30. PREJUDICE Prejudice – Refers to a prejudgment; making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event – Any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence Prejudiced attitudes often result in sweeping generalizations about groups of people – Leads to stereotyping

31. Sources of prejudice 1) Learned from others – May be modeled or reinforced by parents, adults, peers – A vivid negative experience create a prejudicial attitude 2) Social Categorization – Our need to understand and simplify our world make us categorize people into “us” and “them”, which can result in stereotypical attitudes

32. Sources of prejudice In-Group Bias – We view members of our “in-group” more favorably than those who are not In-Group Favoritism – The tendency to attribute positive characteristics to one’s own group and negative characteristics to those outside of one’s group (out-group negativity)

33. SOURCES OF PREJUDICE Social Conflict – People of different races/religions often compete for jobs, giving rise to feelings of prejudice People who have been victims of prejudice sometimes become prejudiced themselves, trying to rebuild a sense of pride by asserting their superiority over other groups of people

34. Sources of prejudice Prejudices are components of schemas through which people view the world – Will affect how they interpret and react to it

35. “Prejudiced personality types” People have “prejudiced personality types” – Authoritarian personality – Fearful and anxious as children May have been raised by cold, love-withholding parents who regularly used physical punishment To gain control and master over adults, such individuals become aggressive and controlling over others See the world in absolutes – Good v Bad – Black v White

36. “Prejudiced personality types” Cont… – They tend to blame others for their problems and tend to become prejudiced towards those people – Have excessive concern for power, authority, and obedience – Often politically conservative – Intolerant thinkers; difficult to change their beliefs; stubborn

37. Racism Any attitude, action, or institutional structure which subordinates a person or group because of their color; a program or practice of discrimination; segregation, persecution, and domination on the basis of race

38. Racism Race used to mean biologically distinct groups of people who were alleged to have characteristics of an unalterable nature – Today the idea of race has no scientific meaning Biological diversity within human groups far greater than the difference between racial groups More diversity between Caucasians than between Caucasians and Blacks Race is rather a social and cultural identification category

39. Helping behavior Prosocial Behavior – Any behavior that helps another person Altruism – Helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit, sometimes involving great risk Cynics say there is no such thing as altruism

40. Helping behavior Factors that INCREASE the likelihood of Bystanders’ helping: – 1) The “Feel-Good, Do-Good” Effect People who feel good, successful, happy, or fortunate are more likely to help others – 2) Feeling Guilty We tend to be more helpful when we’re feeling guilty about something

41. Helping Behavior – 3) Seeing others who are willing to help People’s behavior is often influenced by what they see others do (Observational learning) – 4) Perceiving the other person as deserving help We’re more likely to help people who are in need of help through no fault of their own – 5) Knowing how to help Simply knowing what to do contributes greatly to the decision to help someone else

42. Helping Behavior – 6) A personalized relationship Knowing the person increases the likelihood that one person will help the other

43. Helping behavior Factors that DECREASE the likelihood of Bystanders” Helping – 1) The presence of other people Bystander Effect: As the number of bystanders at an emergency INCREASES, the probability that the victim will receive help DECREASES (and help, if given, is likely to be delayed) The Bystander Effect can be explained two ways – A) Evaluation Apprehension » People hesitate to react for fear of appearing foolish

44. Helping behavior Cont… – B) Diffusion of Responsibility When bystanders at an emergency feel that responsibility for helping is shared by the group, each individual feels less compelled to act than if he/she alone felt total responsibility 2) Being in a big city or a very small town 3) Vague or ambiguous situations – When situations are ambiguous and people are not certain that help is needed or wanted, they’re less likely to offer help

45. Helping behavior 4) When the personal costs for helping outweigh the benefits – As a general rule, we tend to weight the costs as well as the benefits of helping in deciding whether to act Research suggests that ¾ of people will offer assistance when alone, fewer than ½ will do so when in a group

46. The Tragedy of Kitty Genovese

47. It was reported that 38 people heard her cries for help in the early morning hours on March 13 th, 1964 – One intervened by calling out of his window “Leave that girl alone” No one else did anything She was stabbed and eventually raped during 2-3 separate attacks spanning about 30 minutes on that morning The sensationalism surrounding her death directly lead to an increase in research of helping behaviors – “…there is another kind of evil which we must fear most, and that is the indifference of good men”

49. Obedience, Conformity, and Compliance Obedience: Agreeing to comply with commands or orders issued by a person in a position of authority or higher status – Parent, teacher, coach, older sibling, grandparent, religious leader, etc. Conformity: Bringing out behavior into agreement or harmony with social norms or with the behavior of others in a group; “act differently from the way you would act alone” – Act in a way to fit the norms of the group

50. Obedience, Conformity, and compliance Compliance: Bending to the requests or demands of a person who has little or no authority or other form of social power – Putting a tie on to get into a nice restaurant; yielding a phone booth to a stranger to make a call; a salesperson might suggest you buy a more expensive watch than you planned on; agreeing to buy a product from a door-to-door salesman

51. Compliance Pressures to comply are common: – Foot-in-the-Door Effect Tendency for a person who has first complied with a small request to be more likely later to fulfill a larger request – Door-in-the-Face Effect Tendency for a person who has refused a major request to subsequently be more likely to comply with a minor request – Low-Ball Technique Strategy in which commitment is gained first to reasonable/desirable terms, which are then made less reasonable or desirable

52. Obedience People tend to obey more if: – The person giving the orders is close at hand and is perceived to be legitimate – The authority figure is prestigious. They respect his/her credentials – The authority figure looks authoritative – The victim is depersonalized or at a distance – There are no role models for defiance – Individuals live in a society (or family) where they are taught to trust and obey authority figures – Individuals are unaware or unsure of their own beliefs or attitudes

53. Obedience Stanley Milgram’s Experiment – Can a person be pressured by others into committing an immoral act that violated his or her own conscience, such as hurting a stranger? The experiment – An accomplice (Learner) – A subject (Teacher) – The experimenter Nearly 1,000 participants in 20 different experiments The subjects were told that the study concerns the effect of punishment on learning The task: To teach and then test the learner on a list of word pairs. You punish for wrong answers by delivering brief electric shocks (shock escalated with each successive wrong answer)

56. Obedience The results – 65% of the subjects continued to “shock” the learner to the full 450- volt level – Virtually 100% of all subjects were willing to deliver some “shocks” Explaining Milgram’s findings: – The experimental situation was supported by a prestigious institution (Yale) – The subjects volunteered and were paid a small stipend – The victim was at a distance in another room – Others were doing it, thus the subjects may have assumed that responsibility was shared – The foot-in-the-door phenomenon. Once the subjects had begun to deliver the shocks, they may have found it progressively more difficult to stop

58. Conformity Factors that promote conformity: – You’re more likely to conform to group norms when: You are facing a unanimous majority of four or five people You must give your response in front of the group You have not already expressed commitment to a different idea or opinion You find the task ambiguous or difficult You doubt your abilities or knowledge in the situation You are strongly attracted to a group and want to be a member of it

59. Conformity Women, by a small margin, are more likely to conform Some degree of conformity HELPS groups function more smoothly One lone dissenting voice in a group can disrupt group conformity

60. Conformity Solomon Asch conducted on of the more ingenious experiments on conformity in 1955

62. Conformity The results – More than 50% of the participants agreed with the wrong answer of the confederates at least once Since conformity is unpredictable, Asch’s findings have not always been replicated

63. Group Influence People behave differently in groups People join groups for attention, affection, support, to accomplish things they couldn’t on their own, and because of a need to affiliate The more socially focused a group is, the poorer the decisions it makes

64. Group Influence Do you perform better when you work in front of people? – Social Facilitation: The tendency to work better and harder in the presence of others than when alone – Social Inhibition: When the presence of others tends to impair performance of a task The presence of other people tends to increase our levels of arousal and motivation – Our performance of simple, well-learned tasks may be FACILITATED; but our performance of complex, unfamiliar tasks may be IMPAIRED – Think of the Arousal Theory/ Yerkes-Dodson Law

65. Group Influence Social Loafing: The tendency for people to apply less effort (“goof off”) when they work as members of a group than when they work on their own – More likely to occur when individual performance is NOT evaluated – May be reduced by making tasks more appealing, holding each member accountable for his/her contributions, or giving PUBLIC feedback of individual performance

66. Group Influence Risky Shift: The tendency for people to take greater risks when part of a group Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness that may occur when one acts in concert with the actions of a crowd – To be “deindividuated” means to become less self- conscious, feel more anonymous, less concerned with personal values, and more apt to engage in unrestrained behaviors Think of sports fanatics, hooligans, “mob mentality”