1. Hawaii’s Biodiversity
The silent invasion of Hawai'i by insects, disease organisms, snakes, weeds, and other pests is the single greatest threat to Hawaii's economy and natural environment and to the health and lifestyle of Hawaii's people. Pests already cause millions of dollars in crop losses, the extinction of native species, the destruction of native forests, and the spread of disease. But many more harmful pests now threaten to invade Hawai'i and wreak further damage. Even one new pest--like the brown tree snake--could forever change the character of our islands. Stopping the influx of new pests and containing their spread is essential to Hawaii's future well-being. Despite the efforts of more than 20 state, federal, and private agencies, unwanted alien pests are entering Hawai'i at an alarming rate - about 2 million times more rapid than the natural rate. In 1993, the federal Office of Technology Assessment declared Hawaii's alien pest species problem the worst in the nation. Hawaii's evolutionary isolation from the continents, and its modern role as the commercial hub of the Pacific make these islands particularly vulnerable to destruction by alien pests. Gaps in current pest prevention systems and a lack of public awareness add further to this serious problem.
The present problem is severe. The future could be even more dire. Slow, incremental action will not be sufficient. Dramatic improvements must be made now to stem the invasion of alien pests. Only committed political leadership and widespread public support can preserve Hawaii's environment, lifestyle, and economy.
This fish was introduced from the Marquesas in 1958 as a game fish. It quickly spread throughout our islands and has become a major problem for fishermen and naturalists alike. The fish does not sell well in markets (people think it is an aquarium fish, not a food fish) and it has also reduced populations of many small native fishes upon which it feeds.
…and invasive species problem
Lecture 39

2. ENDEMIC
Occurring exclusively in a given geographic area, having originated in that area through natural means.
Hawaiian Cleaner Wrasse

3. Nene Rare Endemic Birds
The Nene is the world's rarest goose.[12] It is believed that it once was common, with approximately 25,000 Hawaiian Geese living in Hawaiʻi when Captain James Cook arrived in 1778.[7] However, hunting and introduced predators, such as Small Asian Mongooses, pigs, and cats, reduced the population to 30 birds by 1952.[7] Nevertheless, this species breeds well in captivity, and has been successfully re-introduced; in 2004, it was estimated that there were 800 birds in the wild, as well as 1000 in wildfowl collections and zoos.[7] However, there is some concern of inbreeding due to the small initial population of birds.
Physical Description: Scientists believe these birds were once nearly identical to the Canada goose, but after thousands of years of evolution, they are now quite different. They seldom swim and were not bothered by predators or cold temperatures, so they did not fly as much. Today the Nene has feet that are only half as webbed as other geese, with longer toes for climbing on the rocky lava flows. Their wings are weak, compared to other geese.
Feeding: Because there is little fresh water in their environment, the Nene relies on the moisture from fog and dew, and that contained in the plants it eats.
Status and Conservation: In 1778 when Captain Cooke arrived in the Hawaiian islands, there were probably 25,000 Nene. By the 1950's there were only 30 geese left. Like many island animals, the Nene could not stand up to the introduced animals that colonists brought with them and the changes they made to the environment for agriculture. Today there are about 500 wild Nene and successful captive breeding programs in the United States and Europe with fledglings introduced every year.
Rare Endemic Birds

4. Hawaiian Honeycreepers

5. Pueo The Hawaiian Owl (Asio flammeus sandwichensis)
Hawaiian Name: Pueo
Also called: Short-Eared owl.
Endemic
Status: Species of Concern (federal listing: actually a subspecies). Endangered on O‘ahu (state listing).
Considered by Hawaiians to be an ‘aumakua, or guardian spirit, the pueo is about 15 inches (38 cm) long with yellow eyes, a round facial disc, a black bill, and brown and white feathers. The pueo is an endemic Hawaiian subspecies of the short-eared owl. The pueo’s call is a repeated "tchak" sound, though the bird is usually silent.
The pueo’s habitat includes lowland pastures and fields as well as higher forest areas at elevations up to 8,000 feet (2,438 m). Pueo often hunt over grassland areas, mostly at dawn and dusk but also during daylight hours.
The pueo eats insects and rodents (e.g., mice) as well as other birds including both native and introduced species. The pueo may also prey upon the native ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus, Hawaiian hoary bat).
Pueo often hover briefly over their prey before diving down for the attack. Unlike most other owls, the pueo often soars high in the sky, and is diurnal (active during the day).
[Illustration: Pueo]
Malu ke kula, ‘a‘ohe ke‘u pueo.
The plain is quiet; not even the hoot of an owl is heard.
All is at peace.
(Pukui: )
There is very little research and documentation of pueo nesting behavior. Pueos are thought to nest throughout the year in the Hawaiian Islands, and the peak breeding months are March through June, the same as most other Hawaiian forest bird species.
During courtship, the pueo gives a series of low hoots and claps its wings. The owl lays usually from three to six white eggs in a nest built on the ground in a grassy area. Nests are built on the ground, but rarely seen.
One researcher discovered a pueo nest of six eggs in a depression in tall grass on the downhill side of a dead snag of māmane (Sophora chrysophylla).
Pueo Population
No pueo fossils have been found dating to the time before the first Polynesian settlers arrived in the Hawaiian Islands. Pueos need open grassland habitats, and researchers theorize that the pueo may not have become established on the Hawaiian Islands until after the Polynesian settlers arrived and altered the landscape, increasing the amount of grassland and creating other suitable habitat that then made pueo colonization attempts successful.
The pueo is found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands, with the largest populations found on Maui, Kaua‘i and the island of Hawai‘i. The O‘ahu pueo population is listed as endangered by the State of Hawai‘i. The pueo’s roundish facial area helps to distinguish it from the non-native barn owl, which is also found in the Hawaiian Islands.
The legend of Pu‘upueo (“Owl hill”) in Mānoa, Honolulu tells of a beautiful woman named Kahala-o-Puna. All three times that Kahala-o-Puna was killed by her jealous husband she was resuscitated by the owl that lived on the hill, which is now known as Pu‘upueo.

6. Hawaiian Hawk (‘Io) The Hawaiian Hawk (Buteo solitarius)
Hawaiian Name: ‘Io
Endemic
Status: Endangered Species. Found on island of Hawai‘i Island only.
A sacred hawk in Hawaiian mythology, the ‘io is about 17 inches (43 cm) long, with the female on average a little bigger than the male. “Dark-phase” birds are dark brown above and below, while “light-phase” birds are dark on top but lighter colored below with dark streaks.
The immature ‘io has a light-colored head that darkens as the bird becomes an adult. The legs also go from a green to a more yellowish color.
An Hawaiian proverb from ancient times states: “He ‘io au, he manu i ka lewa lani.” (“I am an ‘io, the bird that soars in the heavenly space.”), which is explained to mean, “A boast. The highest chiefs were often called ‘io (hawk), king of the Hawaiian birds.”[i]
[Illustration: ‘Io]
In air, the ‘io soars gracefully, searching for insects, rodents, and other birds (including young game birds). The ‘io is also a natural predator of the native ‘alalā (Asio flammeus sandwichensis, the native Hawaiian crow) and the native ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus, Hawaiian hoary bat). The ‘io is often are seen soaring high in the air in large circles.
A vocal hawk the ‘io makes the most sound during the breeding season. The ‘io’s vocalization is a high-pitched “kee-oh” sound. Little is known about breeding and nesting behavior, though most nesting is through to occur from May to October.
The hawk builds a nest in a tree using twigs and leaves, and then lays usually from one to three light blue eggs. Both parents participate in the feeding and aggressive protection of the fledglings.
‘Io Population
The ‘io was listed as endangered in 1967, and in 1982 the ‘io population was estimated to be between 1,400 and 2,500 hawks. The ‘io population likely remains near that number today.
Fortunately, the ‘io population is spread through a wide range of habitats and elevations, making it less vulnerable to sudden declines in population. On Hawai‘i Island the hawk may be seen over the slopes of Mauna Kea and Kohala Mountains as well as Mauna Loa.
The ‘Io in Ancient Hawai‘i
‘Iolani was a sacred hawk of Hawaiian mythology, and also one of the names of King Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani). ‘Iolani means “Hawk of heaven,” or “Royal hawk,” and the flight of the ‘io was believed to be a sign of royalty.
In December of 1879, the cornerstone was laid for ‘Iolani Palace in midtown Honolulu. A project of King Kalākaua [David La‘amea Kalākaua], ‘Iolani Palace was built on the site of the earlier royal palace, called Hale Ali‘i.
Hale Ali‘i was built in 1845 for King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli), and named ‘Iolani in 1863 at the request of King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha) who wanted a name chosen to honor his deceased brother, the former King Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani).
‘Iolani Palace was the seat of the Hawaiian monarchy for King Kalākaua and later for Queen Lili‘uokalani [Lydia Kamaka‘eha Pākī-Dominis Lili‘uokalani]. (See O‘ahu, Chapter 2; Chapter 11, Timeline: 1895, Jan. 6; 1879, December 31.)
[Photograph: ‘Io]

7. Tree Snails Pūpū Kani Oe
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
Before Western discovery of the Hawaiian Archipelago in 1778, only 2 or 3 species of snails had been introduced to the islands. In the 19th century, on average, one species was introduced each decade. In the 20th century the rate of introduction rose to four species per decade; with the exception of the 1950s when the rate was even higher due to the intentional introduction of biocontrol agents for a pestiferous snail species Achatina fulica. The biocontrol agents used were dominantly African species (Cowie 1998). Euglandina rosea was one of these biocontrol agents, and its introduction caused the extinction of the endemic tree snail Achatinella mustelina.
Pūpū Kani Oe

8. Unusual Insects & their Relatives
Happy Face Spider
nanana makakiʻi

9. Hawaiian Crickets
Dark lava flow cricket. All are flightless, mute and adapted to living on wet rocks. Only lives on very young barren lava flows on Kiluauea. It hides in deep moist cracks during the day and comes out at night to feed on material blown in on the wind

10. Carnivorous caterpillar

11. Picture wing flies

12. Hoary Bat (‘Ope’ape’a)
The ‘ope‘ape‘a usually weighs 14 to 18 g (0.49 to 0.63 ounces), is nocturnal, and eats insects. Females are larger than males. Their wing span is about 10.5 to 13.5 inches. It has a heavy fur coat that is brown and gray, and ears tinged with white, giving it a frosted or "hoary" look. It is believed to be related to the North American hoary bat and it is the only native land mammal of Hawai‘i. 
Hawaiian hoary bat - Photo credit © Jack JeffreyHabitat & Behavior: Bats are found primarily from sea level to 2,288 m (7,500 ft), although they have been observed near the island's summits above 3,963 m (13,000 ft). Relatively little research has been conducted on this endemic ‘ope‘ape‘a and data regarding its habitat and population status are very limited. Most of the available documentation suggests that this elusive bat roosts among trees in areas near forests.
The ‘ope‘ape‘a feed on a variety of native and nonnative night-flying insects. It is a solitary bat that typically leaves its roost shortly before or after sunset and returns before sunrise. Breeding has only been documented on Hawai‘i and Kaua‘i. Like their North American relative, the ‘ope‘ape‘a gives birth to twins during the summer months. Past & Present: The ‘ope‘ape‘a has been seen on the islands of Hawai‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i, O‘ahu, and Kaua‘i, but may only live on Hawai‘i, Maui, and Kaua‘i. A large population might have lived on O‘ahu before the early 19th century, but it is based on a single observation of an unknown number of bats. Population estimates for all islands have ranged from hundreds to a few thousand, however, these estimates are based on limited and incomplete data. The magnitude of any population decline is unknown. Observation and specimen records do suggest, however, that these bats are now absent from historically occupied ranges.
‘Ope‘ape‘a populations are believed to be threatened by habitat loss, pesticides, predation, and roost disturbance. Its decline may be primarily due to the reduction of tree cover in historic times, and they may be indirectly impacted by the use of pesticides. Conservation Efforts: The ‘ope‘ape‘a was listed as an endangered species on October 13, 1970, under the Federal Endangered Species Act and the State of Hawai‘i's Endangered Species List. The Hawaiian Hoary Bat Recovery Plan, completed in 1998, and the State of Hawai‘i's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservationist Strategy recommend conservation of known occupied habitat, development and implementation of conservation plans that guide the management and use of forests to reduce negative efforts to known bat populations and, continued support for the ‘ope‘ape‘a research cooperative.

13. Hawaiian Monk Seal `Ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua
These seals have gray to brown fur and can grow up to 2.4 metres (8 feet) long, weighing a massive 400 to 600 pounds (180 to 270 kg), females generally being larger and heavier than males. Being the oldest members of the Pinniped order, their appearance hasn’t changed for 15 million years. The reason why the Hawaiian Monk Seal got it’s name is a subject to discussion – some think it’s because of the loose skin around it’s neck, resembling a monk’s hood, others think it’s because of their solitary lifestyle.
The Hawaiian Monk Seal usually lives alone, feeding on fishes, octopuses, eels and other sea creatures, sometimes even birds or other seals. They prefer rather shallow waters, where sharks can’t access them. They can, however dive as deep as 600 feet and stay underwater for more than twenty minutes.
Their breeding usually takes place in spring and summer months and after a gestation period of about 360 days the mothers find sandy beaches to give birth. For six months, the mother doesn’t leave the pup, not even to feed – during this time the mother lives on the fat, stored up in her body and feeds the pup with fat rich milk. The seals become sexually mature at the age of six and can live for as long as 20 years.
Read more:

14. Most Unique Plants
‘ahinahina
Silversword

15. Ohia Lehua
It is said that once there lived two lovers, named Ohia and Lehua. These two had eyes only for each other and would have no one else. One day while walking through the forest, Ohia happened to come upon Madame Pele.  Upon seeing Ohia, Pele became smitten by his handsome good looks, and propositioned him. However, Ohia refused Pele’s advances, stating his everlasting love for Lehua. Pele became furious at his rejection and is said to have killed both Ohia and Lehua in a fit of rage. Eventually though Pele began to feel remorse for what she had done, and tried to right her wrong by turning Ohia’s body into a tree, and Lehua’s body into a beautiful flower, which she placed upon the tree, reuniting the lovers so that they may be together forever. To this day the Ohia-a-lehua tree can be found throughout the islands with its beautiful red Lehua blossoms adorning the Ohia tree.

16. Hapu’u Ferns

17. Percent Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands

18. NATIVE
Occurring naturally in a given geographic area; not introduced as a consequence of human activities

19. EXOTIC
Introduced to a given geographic area as a consequence of human activities.
Anemone fish

20. that animals arrive at their
What are some ways
that animals arrive at their
new location?

21. How do they arrive? Dispersal Methods: Rafting Hitchhiking Currents
Storms
Ballast water is taken on to or discharged from a ship as it loads or unloads its cargo, to accommodate changes in its weight. A modern cargo ship can carry from 100,000 to 10,000,000 gallons or more of ballast water. More than 21 billion gallons of ballast water are discharged in U.S. waters each year. This ballast water can contain living organisms taken up in a port half way around the world, which can invade the area where the water is discharged. In order to reduce the risk of species invasions from ballast water, the Coast Guard has instituted a Ballast Water Management Program, which sets guidelines and requirements for ships to follow when taking up or discharging ballast water.
On January 13, 1999, representatives of the California Assembly, the Chippewa-Ottawa Treaty Fishery Management Authority, and environmental advocacy groups sent a petition to the Administrator of EPA, suggesting that invasive species in ballast water were a major cause of environmental degradation in U.S. waters, and requesting that EPA regulate the discharge of ballast water from ships under the NPDES permit program.

22. Invasive Species Pathways
Purposeful introduction via legal and illegal means;
Unintentional introduction
• Aircraft and cargo ship hulls
• Ballast water and ship cargo
• Hand-carry/luggage
• Agriculture experiment stations
• Mail
• Forestry activities
• Horticulture trade
• Aquaculture
• Pet trade
• Botanical gardens

23. WHY SOME INTRODUCTIONS SUCCEED AND SOME DON’T?
Disadvantages due to new environmental conditions:
Foraging & predator avoidance strategies may be different
Small #’s of orgs introduced may go extinct
Advantages:
Generalist vs specialist species
WHY SOME INTRODUCTIONS SUCCEED AND SOME DON’T? Perhaps the most remarkable fact about the introduction of non-native species, given the tremendous problems they have caused, is that most introductions do not succeed. But the lack of success makes sense when considering the challenges faced by all tiny populations, and evolutionary constraints. Non-native organisms are just that – they evolved in ecosystems that differ from the ones into which they are being introduced. They are, therefore, almost always at a disadvantage because their adaptations likely do not match the environmental challenges they face in their new homes. For example, the foraging strategies of the introduced animals may not be effective given novel sources of food, or their strategies for avoiding being eaten may not work given a new set of predators. Furthermore, most introductions, whether accidental or deliberate, consist of a small number of organisms. Small populations suffer from numerous problems that cause their local extinction, even if they are well suited to the environment. (Our concerns about endangered species illustrate these problems dramatically.) It should come as no surprise, therefore, that most introductions of non-native organism fail. Is this reason for ambivalence about the issue of introducing exotic species? Certainly not, because obviously some introduced organisms happen to fit their new environments even better than the native species. If they surpass the challenges faced by small populations, they can then explode into their new homes. The consequences of these “explosions” often are disastrous and far-reaching.

24. Environmental Diversity
Extremely wide range of habitats
temperature
moisture
soils
vegetation

25. Environmental Diversity
Cold & Dry
Cool & Dry
inversion
Warm & Dry
trades
Warm & Wet
Warm & Very Dry
Hot & Very Dry
Hot & Wet

29. Dispersal to the Hawaiian Islands

30. Origins of Hawaiian Flora and Fauna

31. Origins of Hawaiian Flora and Fauna

32. Origin of Hawaiian Coral Indo West Pacific
A map of the Pacific Ocean showing where coral samples were collected. Circles of the same color indicate corals that are genetically similar. Clipperton Island has corals that are genetically similar to those found throughout the central Pacific, suggesting that larvae from the central Pacific traveled eastward to populate Clipperton. Blue arrows indicate cool ocean currents; red arrows indicate warm ocean currents. The inset image shows the study species, Porites lobata. Credit: Baums lab, Penn State University

33. Long Distance Dispersal Wind, Water, & Wings Theory
The original colonist plants arrives in the following ways:
water 23%
wind 2%
birds 75%
Hawaii’s Flowering Plants

34. Drifting in Seawater
Pandanus tectorius
Ipomoea pes-caprae

35. Drifting in Air
Includes plants that reproduce by means of spores such as ferns, mosses, algae, and lichen .
Adenophorus periens

36. Attached to Birds
Estimated 12.8% of the hypothetical original flowers arrived this way
Pacific golden plover
Tetraplasandra flynii
Has hairy gray fruits

37. Immigration Rates number rate (1 every …)
flowering plants thousand years
insects thousand years
land snails million years
land birds 15 2 million years
mammals 1 30 million years

38. Polynesian Voyagers to Hawaii
yam
breadfruit
taro
Pigs, dogs, taro, coconut, kukui, banana, bread fruit,, kudzu, sweet potato, yams…
kava

39. Ahupua’a Ranges from the tip of the mtn to the reef area Upland Plains
Ocean
Slash & burn agriculture (swidden)

40. Hawaii Bird Biodiversity Crisis
Half of Hawaii’s native birds went extinct soon after the Polynesians arrived
Half of the remaining species of birds went extinct soon after Captain James Cook arrived
The colouring was achieved using different types of feathers. The black and yellow came from a bird called the (Moho) or 'O'o in Hawaiian. There were four varieties of this bird and the last type became extinct in 1987 with the probable cause being disease. Although the birds were exploited for their feathers the effect on the population of the 'O'o is thought to be minimal.[9] The distinctive red feathers came from a different bird the Scarlet Hawaiian Honeycreeper or ʻIʻiwi which is still a moderately common bird in Hawaii.
Populations and Extinctions
When the first Polynesians settled in the Hawaiian Islands they immediately began to have an impact on native bird populations. For example, while nēnē (Branta sandvicensis) had once thrived on Kaua‘i, it is believed the bird was extinct on Kaua‘i by the time Captain Cook arrived in 1778, though nēnē populations on other islands, particularly Hawai‘i Island, were still significant.
When Captain Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, there were about 80 species of endemic Hawaiian landbirds and at least 24 species and subspecies of native Hawaiian seabirds (4 endemic) and at least 34 species and two subspecies of waterbirds (29 endemic). Before Cook arrived, more than 35 endemic Hawaiian landbirds had already gone extinct.
Bird species that went extinct prior to Cook’s arrival met their demise from a variety of causes, including humans hunting the birds for food, feathers, and other reasons (e.g., collectors capturing the birds).
Pigs and dogs brought by the Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands also had an effect on island bird populations, as did the rats that hitched a ride on the Polynesians’ voyaging canoes. These particular Polynesian-introduced species were detrimental to ground-nesting birds, which were also the most likely birds to be hunted by the early settlers for food.
About 23 of the bird species that became extinct prior to Western contact were ground-nesting birds, now known only from subfossil discoveries. (For a more in-depth discussion of extinct Hawaiian birds, see Overview of Native and Polynesian-Introduced Species of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 5.)

41. European Contact Large herbivores introduced
Native plants are “ice cream”
Animals multiplied rapidly

42. Introduced Feral Mammals
Goats
1.5 million skins
Fainting goats
Tree goats

43. Introduced Feral Mammals
Cattle on Oahu
Wandered Honolulu streets
On all land but residential, agricultural or dense forest

44. Mongoose
Brought in to help control rat population in sugar cane fields
Rat nocturnal
Mongoose diurnal
Mongoose, dogs, and cats are the nene’s main predator
Original Distribution: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam.
Current Distribution: Found on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai and Oahu. So far, it has been successfully kept out of Kauai.
Site and Date of Introduction: Established in Antigua, Anguilla, Caribbean, Comores, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Hawaii (1883), Jamaica (1872), Japan, Mauritius, Puerto Rico, Surinam, West Indies (1870's), and the island of Korcula in the Mediterranean, and other tropical regions.
Mode(s) of Introduction: Introduced to islands for biological control of rats and snakes in agricultural (sugarcane) habitats, from which the animals have quickly spread throughout the surrounding areas.
Reason(s) Why it has Become Established: Small Indian mongooses are generalist feeders, agile and have the ability to adapt to new surroundings. Most islands lack predators and native species have not evolved anti predator tactics, providing a safe environment and an easy food base for mongooses. H.auropunctatus has both a high rate of reproduction (breeds two or three times a year, litters of three) and a young age of first reproduction (females can breed at the age of 10 weeks). A female can produce up to 36 individuals in a typical four year life span.
Ecological Role: Not much is known about the ecology of this species in its native ranges. H.auropunctatus is solitary, lives in burrows and is diurnal. It feeds on a wide variety of small vertebrates, eggs and young of larger vertebrates (e.g. sea turtle eggs), large invertebrates and occasionally, fruits and vegetation. The small Indian mongoose has well developed carnassial teeth used to tear flesh. Its feet have four or five digits each with long non retractile claws, which are adapted for digging up invertebrates. The small Indian mongoose is a voracious and opportunistic predator of a variety of native species and live stock on islands where it has been introduced.
Benefit(s): Controls the Asiatic rat and snakes in agricultural areas.
Threat(s): H.auropunctatus is a predator of birds (especially ground nesters), small mammals and reptiles (especially snakes and iguanas). Its impact on invertebrates is not known. It is a vector and reservoir of rabies and leptospirosis in Puerto Rico and other islands and causes economic losses to game species and the poultry industry. H.auropunctatus has already caused at least 7 amphibian and reptile extinctions in Puerto Rico and other islands in the West Indies. The Indian mongoose has been linked with either the proximate or ultimate cause of extinction in five endemic vertebrates in Jamaica: one lizard -- Giant galliwasp (Celestrus occiduus), one snake -- Black racer (Alsophis ater), two birds -- Jamaican Poor-will (Siphonorhis americanus) and Jamaican Petrel (Pterodroma caribbaea), and one rodent -- Jamaican rice rat (Oryzomys antillurum).
Control Level Diagnosis: Highest Priority. The IUCN lists the small Indian mongoose as one of the top 100 world's worst invaders. Most endemic island species are naturally vulnerable, occurring in small isolated populations and ranging over small areas. Based on the public health damages, killing of poultry, extinctions of amphibians, reptiles, and destruction of native birds, it is estimated that this mongoose is causing $50 million in damages each year in Puerto Rico and the Hawaiian Islands alone.
Control Method: Trapping has been used extensively on many nature reserves. Animals have also been shot or poisoned, using either drops of poison or baiting with poisoned carrion. The success of these control methods was not noted. Because of the widespread destruction to native fauna, it is currently illegal to import mongooses into the United States. Laws should discourage further human facilitated introductions on island or other non-native habitats. More studies need to be done on the ecology, population structure, density, distribution and rates of recolonization after population removal from selected areas of H.auropunctatus to develop models to evaluate the effectiveness of different management regimes. One such study was proposed for Mauritius, using methods such as mark and recapture, radio telemetry and dietary analysis.
The mongoose was introduced in 1883 to control rats in sugar cane fields. It was an excellent cane field ratter, but did not stay put in the cane fields, and eventually wandered into other areas where it continued to look for food. Although insects make up a large part of its diet, it is a serious enemy of native animals because it preys on ground-nesting birds and their eggs, such as seabirds and the nene.

45. Poison dart frog
Coqui frog
coqui
coqui
coqui

47. Cane toad

48. Cane toad

49. Feral pigs
Originally introduced by Polynesian voyagers from the Marquesas Islands ca. 400 AD
Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) cause extensive damage to wet forests in Hawaii. Originally introduced by Polynesian voyagers from the Marquesas Islands ca. 400 AD, the small (20 kilos) Polynesian pig has been completely replaced by larger (200 kilo) domesticated European breeds (shown here) introduced to the archipelago about 200 years ago.

50. Pig Fence
Pig wallow

51. Jackson’s Chameleon
This odd looking creature was introduced into Hawai‘i in 1972 as a pet by Paul Breeze (Director of the Honolulu Zoo). It has since escaped into our forests and can potentially wreak havoc with our native insect fauna. Since this chameleon is one of the largest predators in the forest, it could eventually cause the reduction or even extinction of some of the more rare insects that live in trees.

52. Maui Axis Deer

53. Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby
Kalihi Valley

54. Brahminy “Hawaiian” Blind Snake
Introduced 1930’s
Eats ants and beetles
Parthogenic
Not a threat
                                
If you live in Hawaii long enough and you root around in your gardens frequently enough, you're bound to see an Brahminy Blind Snake (Ramphotyhlops braminus). If you do ever happen to catch glimpse of these worm-looking vertebrates, you'll be know they are female. Its the only known parthenogenic snake. That means that one snake can populate an island by laying unfertilized eggs that hatch to become virtual female clones. Its a great adaptation that has enabled island existence of other species (notably the geckos).
Sometime in the 1930's the blind snake was introduced to the islands of Hawaii in potting soil from plants (probably from the Philippines). These small snakes with tiny eye-spots, eat small termites, ants and other arthropods. As termites and ants are also introduced animals, these snakes pose no great threat to ecosystems in Hawaii.

55. Piranhas
Two Piranhas were caught in Lake Wilson in There may be more. We don’t know.

57. Introduced Species
Acanthophora, Eucheuma, & Gracillaria

59. Super Sucker to the Rescue!

60. Mangroves in Hawaii (transplanted in 1902)
AB: Prior to the early 1900s, there were no mangroves in the Hawaiian Archipelago. In 1902, Rhizophora mangle was introduced on the island of Molokai, primarily for the purpose of stabilizing coastal mud flats. This species is now well established in Hawaii. and is found on nearly all of the major islands. At least five other species of mangroves or associated species were introduced to Hawaii in the early 1900s and while none has thrived to the degree of R. mangle, at least two haveestablished self-maintaining populations (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Conocarpus erectus). Mangroves are highly regarded in mostparts of the tropics for the ecosystem services they provide, but in Hawaii they also have important negative ecological andeconomic impacts. Known negative impacts include reduction in habitat quality for endangered waterbirds such as the Hawaiian stilt (Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), colonization of habitat  to the detriment of native species (e.g. in anchialine pools), overgrowing native Hawaiian archaeological sites, and causing drainage and aesthetic problems. Positive impacts appear to be fewer, but include uses of local importance, such as harvestingB. gymnorrhiza flowers for lei-making, as well as some ecological services attributed to mangroves elsewhere, such as sediment retention and organic matter export. From a research perspective. possible benefits of the presence of mangroves in Hawaii include an unusual opportunity to evaluate their functional role in coastal ecosystems and the chance to examine unique or rare species interactions.

61. Brown Tree Snake, Guam
Shortly after World War II, and before 1952, the brown tree snake was accidentally transported from its native range in the South Pacific to Guam, probably as a stowaway in ship cargo.  As a result of abnormally abundant prey resources on Guam and the absence of natural predators and other population controls, brown tree snake populations reached unprecedented numbers.  Snakes caused the extirpation of most of the native forest vertebrate species; thousands of power outages affecting private, commercial, and military activities; widespread loss of domestic birds and pets; and considerable emotional trauma to residents and visitors alike when snakes invaded human habitats with the potential for severe envenomation of small children.  Since Guam is a major transportation hub in the Pacific, numerous opportunities exist for the brown tree snakes on Guam to be introduced accidentally to other Pacific islands as passive stowaways in ship and air traffic from Guam.  Numerous sightings of this species have been reported on other islands, and an incipient population is probably established on Saipan.  It is important that people who may come in contact with the brown tree snake, particularly on neighboring islands and other high-risk sites, understand the scope of this problem and how to identify the snake so proper action can be taken.
This resource has been developed to provide source materials on the history of the invasion, continuing threats, research results, and containment and management of the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) in Guam and its relevance to other islands and mild continental environments.

62. Upside-down Jellyfish

63. Snowflake Coral Carijoa riisei (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
Phylum Cnidaria Class Anthozoa Subclass Octocorallia Order Telestacea Family Clavulariidae
Description The species forms erect, branching colonies with flexible stems. Each tall axial polyp has many short lateral polyps. Polyps, when extended, have eight white frilly tentacles, like the rays of a snowflake. The long stems or branches of the octocoral are a dirty white color, but they are almost always covered with a very thinly encrusting orange-red sponge, yet to be identified. Two types of sclerites occur in the body wall. Habitat Most commonly found in the fouling community of harbors, usually on pier pilings or wrecks which are not exposed to direct sunlight. It is found outside of harbors, especially along the leeward coast of Oahu, on shipwrecks or in sheltered and shaded crevices or shallow caves on the deeper reefs. Distribution Hawaiian Islands Throughout the main Islands Native Range Western Atlantic, from Florida to Brazil Present Distribution Western Atlantic, Hawaiian Islands, possibly now widespread in the Indo-Pacific (see Remarks) Mechanism of Introduction Unintentional, most likely as fouling on ships' hull Impact Fouling organism. Ecological impact unstudied, but probably some competition for space with other invertebrates. Ecology Feeding Like all cnidarians, C. riisei has tiny stinging cells in their tentacles which enable the capture of motile zooplankton. Reproduction Polyps may reproduce asexually by simply splitting in two, or sexually by release and fertilization of gametes into the water column. The resulting planula larvae settle to the bottom and develop directly into young polyps. Remarks This orange soft coral or "snowflake coral" native to the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil, was first found in 1972 in the fouling community in Pearl Harbor (Thomas, 1979, as Telesto riisei). Muzik (pers. comm.) noted that a species of Carijoa is now also known from Chuuk, Palau, the Philippines, "Indonesia", Australia, and Thailand: whether some of these also represent the species riisei is not known, although it could certainly have achieved such a wide distribution in more than 20 years of ship-mediated dispersal if it were first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the late 1960s or early 1970s. Colin and Arneson (1995) published photographs of Carijoa sp. from Chuuk, in Micronesia, and from a cement ship in Enewetak, Marshall Islands, noting that "it is a very common fouling organism found on buoys, wharves and ship bottoms, plus turbid water reefs." References Colin, P.L. and L.Arneson Tropical Marine Invertebrates. Coral Reef Press, Beverly Hills. 296 pp. Thomas, W.J Aspects of the micro-community associated with Telesto riisei, an introduced alcyonarian species. MS Thesis, Zoology Dept., University of Hawaii.

64. Samoan Crab 7 lbs 7 oz, 0/27/09 windward side
Scylla serrata (Forskäl, 1775)
Samoan Crab Mangrove Crab, Mud Crab
Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Crustacea Class Malacostraca Order Decapoda Infraorder Brachyura Family Portunidae
Description This is the largest portunid in Hawaii, exceeding 18 cm in width of carapce. The carapace is smooth, the front bearing four blunt teeth and along the anterolateral border nine sharp teeth of about equal size. The claws of the males become very large. It is either entirely grayish green or purplish brown in color. Habitat This crab inhabits muddy bottoms in brackish water along the shoreline, mangrove areas, and river mouths. Distribution Hawaiian Islands All main islands Native Range Indo-Pacific, from South Africa to Tahiti, north to Okinawa, and south to Port Hacking, Australia and the Bay of Islands, New Zealand. Present Distribution Throughout the Indo-Pacific, from Japan, China, Philippines, and Hawaiian Islands to Australia, Indonesia, East and South Africa, and the Red Sea. Also introduced to Gulf of Mexico (Florida), status unknown. Mechanism of Introduction Intentional, to establish a commercial crab fishery. Crabs from Samoa released on Oahu, Molokai, and Hawaii. Impact Prized, sought-after commercial species. Ecological impact unstudied in Hawaii, but it is a large, active and aggressive carnivorous species that undoubtedly feeds on native invertebrate species. Ecology Feeding S. serrata is primarily a carnivore, eating mollusks, crustaceans, and polychaetes, as well as small amounts of plants and debris. Reproduction Crabs are gonochoristic (having male and female individuals in the same population). Mating of S. serrata take place as early as the first year of life after the female undergoes a precopulatory molt. Recent studies in northern Australia, have shown that the transition of immature crabs to physiological maturity probably occurs between mm carapace width (Knuckey, 1996). During copulation, a male approaching a female in premolting condition climbs over her, clasps her with his chelipeds and the anterior pair of walking legs, and carries her around. They may remain so paired for 3 to 4 days until the female molts. The male then turns the female over for copulation, which usually lasts 7 to 12 hours. Although the spermatozoa of S. serrata are non-motile, sperm can be retained by the female, and fertilization may not take place for many weeks or even months after spawnings (Chen, 1976). While most of the life cycle of S. serrata is spent in inshore waters, especially estuaries, the females migrate offshore with the fertilized eggs attached to the pleopods, where they hatch in a few weeks (Hill, 1996). Remarks The Samoan crab was first introduced into Kaneohe Bay, in order to start a fishery in Between 1926 and 1935, 98 crabs were released on Oahu, Hawaii, and Molokai, all from Samoa (Brock 1960). By 1940 it had "already become thoroughly established about our shores, entering estuaries of streams and ascending far up some of the larger rivers" (Edmondson and Wilson, 1940). Edmondson (1954) noted that large specimens may exceed 20 cm in breadth and weigh several pounds. Maciolek and Timbol (1981) reported it from the Kahana Estuary, Oahu, based on collections made from 1969 to Eldredge (1994) noted that as of 1992 it was one of the major species collected in certain areas of the island of Hawaii. Brock (1960) attributed part of the success of the crab, in light of the relatively few individuals released, as being due in part to the fact that some of the estuarine areas where this species was released have a low rate of tidal flushing, a situation which may be conducive to the rapid growth of a population within the estuarine area. References Brock, V The introduction of aquatic animals into Hawaiian water. Int. Revue Hydrobiol. 45: Chen, T. P Aquaculture Practices in Taiwan. Fishing News Books Limited, Surrey, England. 162 pp. Edmondson, C.H. and I.H. Wilson The shellfish resources of Hawaii. Sixth Pac. Sci. Congress, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. pp Edmondson, C.H Hawaiian Portunidae. B.P. Bishop Mus. Occ. Pap. 21(12): Eldredge, L.G Introductions of commercially significant aquatic organisms to the Pacific Islands. South Pacific Commission (Noumea, New Caledonia), Inshore Fisheries Research Project, Tech. Rept. 7. Hill, B. J Offshore spawning by the portunid crab Scylla serrata (Crustacea: Decapoda). Marine Biology 120: Knuckey, I. A Maturity in male mud crabs, Scylla serrata, and the use of mating scars as a functional indicator. Journal of Crustacean Biology 16(3): Maciolek, J.A. and A.S. Timbol Environmental features and macrofauna of Kahana Estuary, Oahu, Hawaii. Bull. Mar. Sci. 31:
7 lbs 7 oz, 0/27/09 windward side

65. Blue stripped snapper
The silent invasion of Hawai'i by insects, disease organisms, snakes, weeds, and other pests is the single greatest threat to Hawaii's economy and natural environment and to the health and lifestyle of Hawaii's people. Pests already cause millions of dollars in crop losses, the extinction of native species, the destruction of native forests, and the spread of disease. But many more harmful pests now threaten to invade Hawai'i and wreak further damage. Even one new pest--like the brown tree snake--could forever change the character of our islands. Stopping the influx of new pests and containing their spread is essential to Hawaii's future well-being. Despite the efforts of more than 20 state, federal, and private agencies, unwanted alien pests are entering Hawai'i at an alarming rate - about 2 million times more rapid than the natural rate. In 1993, the federal Office of Technology Assessment declared Hawaii's alien pest species problem the worst in the nation. Hawaii's evolutionary isolation from the continents, and its modern role as the commercial hub of the Pacific make these islands particularly vulnerable to destruction by alien pests. Gaps in current pest prevention systems and a lack of public awareness add further to this serious problem.
The present problem is severe. The future could be even more dire. Slow, incremental action will not be sufficient. Dramatic improvements must be made now to stem the invasion of alien pests. Only committed political leadership and widespread public support can preserve Hawaii's environment, lifestyle, and economy.
This fish was introduced from the Marquesas in 1958 as a game fish. It quickly spread throughout our islands and has become a major problem for fishermen and naturalists alike. The fish does not sell well in markets (people think it is an aquarium fish, not a food fish) and it has also reduced populations of many small native fishes upon which it feeds.

66. Fire Introduced grasses a problem Fountain grass in Kona area
After fires, fire-adapted species become abundant
Helicopters = $700/hour
Lecture 39

67. Historic Role of Fire in Hawaii
Relatively low except for occasional fire from volcanoes
HISTORIC ROLE OF FIRE
Fire appears to be a relatively infrequent, low intensity disturbance in native Hawaiian ecosystems, and was probably occasionally ignited by lava flows or lightning strikes (Mueller-Dombois and Lamoureux 1967; Mueller-Dombois 1981; Smith and Tunison 1992). Ecologists have concluded that natural fire has not played a significant ecological or evolutionary role in most native Hawaiian ecosystems.
Wildland fires are a serious threat, especially to the mesic forests that occur above the 5,000-foot elevation. After cattle were removed from the area, wildfires fueled by nonnative fountain grass decimated the dry forests north of Pu’uwaa’waa in 1960, 1969, 1995, and 1998 (Tomich 1971, Stephl 1995; pers. obs.). Landowners adjacent to the Unit are concerned about the increased potential for fire after the reduction in the number of domestic and feral ungulates for habitat management purposes. A cooperative effort with land managers in the area will be necessary to reduce and manage the fire risk and actively suppress fires.
No known fires have occurred on the Kona Forest Unit. In November 1997 to January 1998, a wildland fire occurred on Kealia Ranch, approximately three miles north of the Unit boundary. The cause of the fire is unknown; however, an intense lightning storm in the area two days prior to the fire indicates a possible natural ignition. The long-term underground smouldering nature of the fire impressed upon staff and adjacent landowners the potential for natural fires to occur and the difficulty in suppressing this type of fire. Approximately 20 acres were burned, primarily koa, mamane, and naio trees and nonnative kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum).

68. Invasive Plants Spread of invasive plants increase risk of fire
HISTORIC ROLE OF FIRE
Fire appears to be a relatively infrequent, low intensity disturbance in native Hawaiian ecosystems, and was probably occasionally ignited by lava flows or lightning strikes (Mueller-Dombois and Lamoureux 1967; Mueller-Dombois 1981; Smith and Tunison 1992). Ecologists have concluded that natural fire has not played a significant ecological or evolutionary role in most native Hawaiian ecosystems.
Wildland fires are a serious threat, especially to the mesic forests that occur above the 5,000-foot elevation. After cattle were removed from the area, wildfires fueled by nonnative fountain grass decimated the dry forests north of Pu’uwaa’waa in 1960, 1969, 1995, and 1998 (Tomich 1971, Stephl 1995; pers. obs.). Landowners adjacent to the Unit are concerned about the increased potential for fire after the reduction in the number of domestic and feral ungulates for habitat management purposes. A cooperative effort with land managers in the area will be necessary to reduce and manage the fire risk and actively suppress fires.
No known fires have occurred on the Kona Forest Unit. In November 1997 to January 1998, a wildland fire occurred on Kealia Ranch, approximately three miles north of the Unit boundary. The cause of the fire is unknown; however, an intense lightning storm in the area two days prior to the fire indicates a possible natural ignition. The long-term underground smouldering nature of the fire impressed upon staff and adjacent landowners the potential for natural fires to occur and the difficulty in suppressing this type of fire. Approximately 20 acres were burned, primarily koa, mamane, and naio trees and nonnative kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum).
Wili wili tree surrounded by Fountain grass

69. A nonnative invasive grass in Hawaii
Guinea grass (Urochloa maxima), a nonnative invasive grass in Hawaii, forms dense stands that outcompete native plants and has very high fine fuel loads that greatly increase fire potential, spread, and severity.
Guinea grass (Urochloa maxima)

70. Invasive grasses, wildfire, and native forest restoration on Oahu
The spread of invasive species, particularly nonnative grasses, and repeated wildfires, both accidental and prescribed, have converted much of Hawaii's dry forest ecosystems to nonnative grasslands.

71. Biological control
Biological control: uses a pest’s natural predators to control the pest
Prickly pear cactus infestation in Hawaii
Cochineal insect

72. Chemical control Miconia Video
An invasive species, identified as Miconia calvescens, has caused a widespread scare in Hawai’i over the past decade.  Recently added to the Hawai’i State Noxious Weed List, this plant has caused major destruction across thousands of acres of all of the Hawaiian islands.  Miconia are capable of growing to be around fifty feet tall, with enormous oval-shaped leaves that cast an overbearing shadow across the ground floor of Hawaiian tropical jungles.  They were introduced in 1961 as a house plant from South America, when they quickly dispersed from homely gardens to take over surrounding land.  Exchange of the plants between gardeners greatly facilitated the growth of the plant throughout all of the Hawaiian islands.
The threat that Miconia pose is one of habitat destruction.  They quickly grow into large shrubs or medium sized trees that take up a lot of area, and their leaves have gained the name “Purple Plague” and “Green Cancer” as a result of their coloring, a dark shade of green on top, and a purple shade on bottom.  The size of the leaves is what causes the most damage; they are so large that they shade the bottom of the tropics from the sun by forming an expansive canopy that blocks any light from entering the lower floors of the jungle, as well as funneling rain in hard streams that beats the soil and strips it of any nutrients.  The canopy of leaves deprives other species of the sunlight they need to perform the light-dependent stages of photosynthesis, and ultimately kill these native species of Hawai’i.
Greg Asner, an ecologist who works with the National Geographic team on eradicating this invasive species from the Hawaiian islands, has ingeniously changed U2 spy planes from the cold war to use to take light-sensitive images of entire forest canopies, and compares the images to measured light reflection readings from the air and from the ground, to identify large areas of Miconia growth, which teams are then able to search for and uproot.  This is a very complex, and rather interesting, method of localizing invasive species, however it appears it may be too slow to get rid of a species that grows so fast.  Unfortunately, other options would likely include harsh chemicals that could harm nearby native species, so it seems that, for now, the solution will work as long as teams work quickly.  Preserving the biodiversity in the Hawaiian islands is essential, so eradicating this invasive weed should become a large effort to ensure success.
Video

73. Solutions?

74. Alien Animal Control > $40,000/mile to fence
Haleakala NP = $5 million
Hard to eradicate animals
Animal control not popular

75. Solutions? Conservation Mechanical (physical removal)
Chemical (pesticides, herbicides)
Biological (natural predator)
Legislation
Education
Prevention
Ballast water:
* UV light
* chemicals
* dump water far from port

76. Inquiry
What accounts for the largest means of seed dispersal to the Hawaiian islands than any other mechanism?
What adaptations must a plant or seed have for dispersal by flotation in seawater?
The most likely way that flowering plant species arrived in Hawai`i was by:
If a species is referred to as being endemic to Hawai`i, you can assume that it:
The main reason that Hawai`i's native species don't have thorns, stingers or chemical defenses is that they:

77. Inquiry
6. What class of vertebrates did not arrive to Hawaii by natural means?
7. Compare a generalist exotic species to a specialist.
8. Why are pigs such a problem?
Endemic, Native or Exotic? A B C D E
Mushroom coral
Green turtle
Cane toad F G
Blue stripped snapper
Carnivorous
caterpillar
Bottlenose dolphin