1. Photocathode R&D and Characterization of Photoemitted Electrons Brian S. Henderson Rice University Advisors: Ivan Bazarov, Yulin Li, Xianghong Liu June 19, 2009

2. 2 Project Basics My project has two essential components –Photocathode R&D –Characterization of photoemitted electron energies Photocathodes serve as the source of electrons used in accelerator beams, including ERL It is thus advantageous to understand the photoemission process and maximize the efficiency of cathodes Other applications of photocathodes include electron lithography and night vision

3. Photocathode R&D

4. June 19, 20094 Photoemission Photoemission is the process by which a material releases electrons when stimulated by EM radiation (i.e. the photoelectric effect) Photoemission is understood to be a bulk process rather than a simple surface interaction Certain materials can be made to exhibit negative electron affinity (NEA) in which the energy level of electrons in the vacuum is lower than the conduction band of the material The goal is the maximize the quantum efficiency (QE), that is the number of electrons produced per incident photon Energy diagram of an NEA cathode (M. Hoppe. PhD Thesis. Universität Heidelberg, 2001.)

5. June 19, 20095 Photocathode Preparation Each photocathode consists of a p- doped GaAs crystal wafer Cathodes are very sensitive to surface contamination and kept under ultra high vacuum The crystal is first cleaned using cracked hydrogen gas and then heat- cleaned at ~650 o C Cathodes are activated by creating a state of NEA by alternating the deposition of cesium and fluorine or oxygen on the crystal surface to create CsF dipoles (yo-yo method) –Currently we use NF 3 as the fluorine source The photocathode preparation chamber (top) and a GaAs photocathode (bottom) (www.lns.cornell.edu/~ib38/ )

6. June 19, 20096 Photocathode Goals and Challenges Currently, good QE values (>10%) have been achieved, but the lifetime of the cathodes needs to be improved The use of NF 3 may be causing the formation of unstable nitrogen bonds on the GaAs surface After activation, the breaking of such bonds may degrade the cathode surface leading to fast drops in QE Possible solution: Deposit fluorine using XeF 2 instead Thermal desorption spectrogram showing evidence of the release of ammonia after cathode activation NH 3 Plot of QE versus number activation cycles for experiments conducted in 2005

7. Characterization of Photoemitted Electron Energies

8. June 19, 20098 Measuring the Energy Distribution Electrons are given a small kick (~20 eV) after leaving cathode The longitudinal energy (E ║ ) distribution is measured using a retarded field analyzer (RFA) At such low energy, deflections of the beam due to external fields are pronounced Measuring the transverse distribution (E ┴ ) and keeping the electrons in the device takes some creativity Device used by Pastuszka, et al for the energy analysis of photoemitted electrons (Pastuszka, et al. J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 88, No. 11, 1 December 2000.)

9. June 19, 20099 Guiding the Beam and Measuring E ┴ To guide the electrons, a strong longitudinal magnetic is applied If B is varied slowly in space relative to the gyration of the electron, the magnetic moment is may be treated as an “adiabatic invariant”: Assuming non-magnetic forces are negligible between the electrode and the RFA, the total energy of each electron is conserved: Simplified trajectory of an electron in a strong axial B-field (M. Hoppe. PhD Thesis. Universität Heidelberg, 2001.)

10. June 19, 200910 Guiding the Beam and Measuring E ┴ Let α denote the ratio of B at the RFA to B at the cathode: Then by energy conservation and the adiabatic invariant: So the initial transverse energy may be found by differentiating with respect to α :

11. June 19, 200911 Progress So Far Photocathode R&D –Learned established procedures for photocathode activation using NF 3 and achieved reasonable quantum yields –Prepared the cathode activation chamber for more detailed analyses of the activation process and behavior of the cathodes after activation Characterization of Photoemitted Electron Energies –Started the examination of previous work to determine areas of necessary improvement for a new device –Developed equations for the “guiding center” trajectories of electrons in the electromagnetic fields characteristics of the energy distribution measurement device

12. June 19, 200912 Project Goals Photocathode R&D –Work to improve the quantum yield of cathodes –Conduct measurements of and work to improve cathode lifetimes –Attempt and study activations using XeF 2 and other methods Characterization of Photoemitted Electron Energies –Compute trajectories of electrons in guiding electric and magnetic fields to determine tolerances for a device to measure energy distributions –Begin work on device design –Begin device construction if possible