1. HMS 320 Quincy University Dr. David Shinn Spring 2009

2. Research Considerations Why – Research question Who – population/sample Where/When – setting, type of research How – data collection, use of instruments

3. Why Research question –Based on previous research –Hypothesis –Systematic observation to answer the question or test the hypothesis

4. Who Sample from a population Considerations –Size –Representation

5. Where/When Research design –Experimental or non-experimental –Quantitative or Qualitative Setting –Controlled –Natural

6. How – Data collection Empirical Senses only way of knowing but unreliable Use of instruments –Paper pencil –Mechanical –Checklists –standardized

7. Experiments Control is key – reduce rival hypotheses Treatment – Experimental group Control group Random assignments True experiment Independent variable Dependent variable –See examples on page 5 of book

8. Non – experimental studies Describe (e.g. surveys) Examine relationships –Associational or correlational studies Causal-comparative –Ex post facto –E.g., effect of smoking on health –Effect of fast foods on health –Effect of income level on educational attainment

9. Surveys Case study Field research (ethnographic) Longitudinal study Cross-sectional historical

10. Variables & Constants Variables – values can vary –Height, grades, aggressiveness, citizenship, humor, time –Can have “more” or “less” –Can belong to one category (group) or another Constant – value cannot or does not change within a group –e.g., all boys in the study are males –e.g., all instruction takes place in one location –all superintendents are public employees

11. Variables Different dimension of variables: Quantitative vs categorical Independent vs dependent Controlled vs extraneous

12. Quantitative variables Represented by numerical values Indicate more/less, high/low Values occur along a continuum Rank (1 st, 2 nd, 3 rd, ….) Ordinal (likert-type scale) Ratio (weight)

13. Categorical variables Vary qualitatively Grouping or classifying variables Mutually exclusive and exhaustive Examples: race, gender, grade in school, level of school, political party

14. Independent/Dependent Variables Researcher presumes (e.g., hypothesizes) the independent Variable (IV) has an effect upon another variable The IV has an effect upon the dependent variable (DV) The value of the DV “depends” upon the IV

15. Independent/Dependent Variables Examples Reading method A is better than B for comprehension Participation or no participation in an after school reading program improves reading comprehension Presence of a teacher aid in an LD classroom leads to better reading comprehension for the students with learning disabilities.

16. Independent/Dependent Variables Cause and Effect” relationship. Experimental studies –The research can vary the amount of an IV to test it’s effect upon the DV. Manipulates reinforcement or praise Amount of time –If the IV is used to group participants – “treatment” or “experimental” groups are formed –Absence of the manipulated variable creates a “control group”

17. Experimental/Treatment groups Two reading methods to improve reading comprehension for 1 st graders Method A and Method B 3 classrooms – one Method A, one Method B and one, neither (no instruction) Or Amount of time in reading instruction per day is manipulated 3 classrooms – One use the normal time, second uses two periods, and third uses three class periods.

18. Controlled vs Extraneous Independent or Manipulated variables are controlled by the research. The research can also control many constants –Classroom, time of day, grade level of students, amount of time Other variables the research has no control over – Extraneous –Weather, student absences, teacher, classroom, parents More you can hold constant the better off you are

19. Controlled vs Extraneous Extraneous variables are: Alternative explanations for the results Goal of experimental control (e.g., strict use of the experimental method) is to reduce the number of alternative explanations

20. Hypothesis A hypothesis predicts the existence of a relationship between two variables –The IV and the DV –Is embedded in the Research Question –Specifically names or identifies the predicted relationship

21. Hypothesis 5 th grade students who participate in the after school reading program will improve their comprehension over the year as measured by the ISAT more than 5 th grade students who don’t participate. The Campbell & Stanley Character education program will lead Quincy 3 rd graders to become good citizens by the time they are 18.

22. Hypothesis Directional H – predicts the “more/less” outcome of manipulating the IV –Participation or no participation in an after school reading program improves reading comprehension Nondirectional H - no prediction of “more/less” –The reading comprehension of students who participate in an after school reading program will differ from the reading comprehension of students who do not participate in the program.

23. Hypothesis Advantages: –Helps our understanding because we must be able to identify the IV and the DV –Forces one to consider the nature of the relationship between the IV and the DV –Testing hypotheses add to the body of knowledge – whether supported or not. In theory validation – a theory makes predictions as the predictions (H’s) are tested the theory is validated (or not).

24. Hypothesis Disadvantages –Bias - look only for that data the supports our hypothesis –Inadvertently set up the study to help our prediction (e.g., give Ms Smith, the best teacher, assign her Method A) –Overlook important but unintended results or dynamics (e.g. Hawthorne effect)