1. Lecture 14 Jianjun Hu Department of Computer Science and Engineering University of South Carolina 2009.10. CSCE350 Algorithms and Data Structure

2. Announcements Midterm 2 – Thursday Oct 29 in class As in Midterm 1, you will be allowed to bring in one single-side letter-size cheat sheet. For the good cheat sheets, we will give you bonus points – 5 points

3. Transform and Conquer Solve problem by transforming into: a more convenient instance of the same problem (instance simplification) presorting Gaussian elimination a different representation of the same instance (representation change) balanced search trees heaps and heapsort polynomial evaluation by Horner’s rule Fast Fourier Transform a different problem altogether (problem reduction) reductions to graph problems linear programming

4. Instance Simplification - Presorting Solve instance of problem by transforming into another simpler/easier instance of the same problem Presorting: Many problems involving lists are easier when list is sorted. searching computing the median (selection problem) computing the mode finding repeated elements

5. Selection Problem Find the k th smallest element in A[1],…A[n]. Special cases: minimum: k = 1 maximum: k = n median: k = n/2 Presorting-based algorithm sort list return A[k] Partition-based algorithm (Variable decrease & conquer): pivot/split at A[s] using partitioning algorithm from quicksort if s=k return A[s] else if s<k repeat with sublist A[s+1],…A[n]. else if s>k repeat with sublist A[1],…A[s-1].

6. Notes on Selection Problem Presorting-based algorithm: Ω(nlgn) + Θ(1) = Ω(nlgn) Partition-based algorithm (Variable decrease & conquer): worst case: T(n) =T(n-1) + (n+1)  Θ(n 2 ) best case: Θ(n) average case: T(n) =T(n/2) + (n+1)  Θ(n) Bonus: also identifies the k smallest elements (not just the k th ) Special cases of max, min: better, simpler linear algorithm (brute force) Conclusion: Presorting does not help in this case.

7. Finding Repeated Elements Presorting-based algorithm: use mergesort (optimal): Θ(nlgn) scan array to find repeated adjacent elements: Θ(n) Brute force algorithm: Θ(n 2 ) Conclusion: Presorting yields significant improvement Θ(nlgn)

8. Computing A Mode A mode is a value that occurs most often in a given list of numbers For example: the mode of [5, 1, 5, 7, 6, 5, 7] is 5 Brute-force technique: construct a list to record the frequency of each distinct element In each iteration, the i-th element is compared to the stored distinct elements. If a matching is found, its frequency is incremented by 1. Otherwise, current element is added to the list as a distinct element Θ(n 2 ), when all the given n elements are distinctWorst case complexity Θ(n 2 ), when all the given n elements are distinct

9. Computing A Mode With Presorting Algorithm

10. Complexity of PresortMode() The dominating part is on the sorting Θ(nlgn) The complexity of the outer while loop is linear since each element will be visited once for comparison Therefore, the complexity of presortMode is Θ(nlgn) Θ(n 2 ) This is much more efficient than the brute-force algorithm that needs Θ(n 2 )

11. Searching Problem Brute-force search: worst case Θ(n). Presorted search T(n)=T sort (n)+ T search (n) = Θ(n log n)+ Θ(log n) = Θ(n log n) Therefore, the presorted search is inferior to the brute-force search However, if we are going to repeat the searching in the same list many times, presorted search may be more efficient because the sorting need not be repeated Binary search

12. Taxonomy of Searching Algorithms Elementary searching algorithms sequential search binary search binary tree search Balanced tree searching AVL trees red-black trees multiway balanced trees (2-3 trees, 2-3-4 trees, B trees) Hashing separate chaining open addressing

13. Balanced Trees: AVL trees For every node, difference in height between left and right subtree is at most 1 An AVL treeNot an AVL tree The number shown above the node is its balance factor, the difference between the heights of the node’s left and right subtrees.

14. Maintain the Balance of An AVL Tree Insert a new node to a AVL binary search tree may make it unbalanced. The new node is always inserted as a leaf We transform it into a balanced one by rotation operations A rotation in an AVL tree is a local transformation of its subtree rooted at a node whose balance factor has become either +2 or -2 because of the insertion of a new node If there are several such nodes, we rotate the tree rooted at the unbalanced node that is closest to the newly inserted leaf There are four types of rotations and two of them are mirror images of the other two

15. Four Types of Rotations for Three-Node AVL Trees

16. General Case: Single R-rotation

17. Double LR-rotation

18. Notes on Rotations Rotations can be done in constant time (steps) Rotations not only guarantee that the resulting tree is balanced, but also should preserve the basic property of a binary search tree, i.e., all the keys in the left subtree should be smaller than the root, the root should be smaller than all the keys in the right subtree. The height (h) of an AVL tree with n nodes is bounded by lg n ≤ h ≤ 1.4404 lg (n + 2) - 1.3277 average: 1.01 lg n + 0.1 for large n So the operations of searching and insertion in an AVL tree take Θ(logn) in the worst case

19. Example: Construct an AVL Tree for the List [5, 6, 8, 3, 2, 4, 7]

20. Continued

21. Other Trees Balance tree: Red-black trees (height of subtrees is allowed to differ by up to a factor of 2) and splay trees Allow more than one element in a node of a search tree: 2-3 trees, 2-3-4 trees and B-trees. Read Section 6.3 for more details.