Personality and Individual differences

Personality and Individual differences
Chapter 4

Chapter 4 Study Questions
What is personality? How do personalities differ? What are value and attitude differences among individuals, and why are they important? What are individual differences and how are they related to workforce diversity?

Personality A common sense definition is: “ Personality presents distinctive set of characteristics that tend to remain the same across similar situation and are relatively stable over time”

Personality Three Key themes Stability: Uniqueness:
Each person is a collection of unique characteristics that results in behavior that is unique to that individual and differentiate one person from another. Situational Consistency Individual characteristics will be similar in different situations only if (a) the situations are similar or (b) the characteristics have produced similar outcomes in these situations in the past Stability: Considerable evidence suggest it is stable and enduring over time. The overall profile or combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts with others.

Determinants of Personality Development
Heredity Study of identical twins Assessments of newborns Genes Environment Social exposures Physiological forces Socioeconomic factors

Heredity and environment. Heredity sets the limits on the development of personality characteristics. Environment determines development within these limits. About a heredity-environment split. Cultural values and norms play a substantial role in the development of personality. Social factors include family life, religion, and many kinds of formal and informal groups. Situational factors reflect the opportunities or constraints imposed by the operational context.

Chris Argyris, Daniel Levinson and Grail Sheehy systematically examine the ways personality develops across time Chris Argyris notes that people develop along a continuum of dimensions from immaturity to maturity Argyris believes that many organizations treat mature adults as if they were still immature and this creates many problems in terms of bringing out the best in employees Levinson and Sheehy maintains that an individuals personality unfolds in a series of stages across times

Sixteen Primary Traits
4-2 E X H I B I T

Big Five Personality Traits
Extraversion Conscientiousness Personality Openness to experience Agreeableness Emotional stability Adapted from: Exhibit 5.1 The Big Five Personality Traits

Extraversion: extravert/ introvert The degree to which a person is outgoing and drives energy from being around other people In more specific terms it the degree to which a person : Enjoys being around other people Is warm to others Speaks up in group settings Maintains a vigorous pace Like excitement and cheerful

Research has shown that extraverts tend to have modest but measurable performance advantage over introverts in occupation requiring high level of interaction with other people Specific occupations where extraverts have been found to perform particularly well include sales and management Introverts tend to do particularly well in occupations such as engineering, accounting, and information technology where more solitary work is required For any occupation where teams are emphasized extraverts may have slight edge, as teams require face-to-face-interaction, group decision making, and navigation of interpersonal dynamics A team with very high percentage of extraverts as members may function poorly, more interested in talking than listening

2. Conscientiousness: Focused / Flexible The degree to which an individual focuses on goals and works towards them In specific terms it is the degree to which a person: Feels capable Is organized Is reliable Possesses a drive for success Focuses on completing the task Thinks before acting Research has shown that individuals scoring high on conscientiousness have performance edge in most occupations and tend to perform well on teams Research has shown that conscientiousness has a stronger positive effect on job performance when a person also scores high on agreeableness

3. Agreeableness: Adapter / Challenger The degree to which an individual is easy going and tolerant Specifically it is the degree to which a person: Believes in the honesty of others Is straightforward Is willing to help others Tends to yield under conflict Is sensitive to the feeling of others

Research has not shown consistent pattern of job outcomes on individuals scoring high or low on agreeableness Being agreeable and disagreeable can be valuable at different times in the same job Agreeable individuals seems to be consistently effective in team work They are positive for interpersonal dynamics, as they are sensitive to the feelings of others and try to ensure the participation and success of all team members Having a very high percentage of very agreeable team members may be associated with too little debate on important issues When teams must make important decisions and solve non-routine problems, having some members with lower scores on agreeableness may be an advantage

4. Emotional Stability: Stable/ Unstable The degree to which an individual easily handles stressful situations and heavy demands Specific traits include: Is relaxed Is slow to feel anger Rarely becomes discouraged Rarely becomes embarrassed Resists unhealthy urges associated with addictions Handles crisis well Research has shown that emotionally stable individuals tend to have an edge in task performance across a large number of occupations Emotionally stable individuals have modest advantage as team members Emotional stability is positively linked to job satisfaction, independent of specific conditions of the job situation

5. Openness to Experience: Explorer/Preserver, The degree to which a person seeks new experiences and thinks creatively More specifically openness is the degree to which a person: Has vivid imagination Has appreciation for art and beauty Values and respects emotions in himself and others Prefers variety to routine Has broad intellectual curiosity Is open to reexamine closely held values

Research has shown that individuals scoring both high and low on openness can perform well in variety of occupations and perform well on teams Those who score high on this dimension are more effective at particular tasks calling for vision and creativity, such as creative aspects of advertising, the creative aspects of marketing and many aspects of arts Individuals with low openness score may be more effective in jobs calling for strong adherence to rules such as piloting airplanes, and accounting

Openness to Experience
Introvert Reserved Quiet Extravert Talkative Sociable Extraversion Challenger Rude, cold Uncaring Adapter Trusting Co-operative soft-hearted Agreeableness Flexible sloppy, inefficient, careless Focused dependable, efficient, organized Conscientiousness Unstable Anxious, angry depressed Stable Self-confident, relaxed, secure Emotional stability Preserver, Unimaginative, conventional, habit bound Explorer Imaginative, curious, broad minded Openness to Experience

Big five Personality characteristics and competencies
E = extraversion, C = Conscientiousness, A = Agreeableness, ES = Emotional stability O = Openness to experience A “++” indicates the higher scores on a trait appear to have a very significant effect on the listed competency A “-” that a lower level of a trait appear to promote the competency Parentheses are used in some cases where some aspects of a trait are associated with the listed competency but the overall trait is not (see slides 22 and 23)

Big Five and High-Involvement Management
Exhibit 5-2 The Big Five and High-Involvement Management Competencies Description Big Five Traits* For Managers Delegating to others Patience in providing information and support when empowering others, but also the ability to confront individuals when there is a problem E+ C+ A- ES+ O+ Developing others Interest in sharing information, ability to coach and train, and interest in helping others plan careers E+ (C+) A++ ES+ (O+) Motivating others Ability to bring out the best in other people, desire to recognize contributions of others, and in general an interest in others E++ C+ (A+) ES+ Adapted from Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment

Big Five and High-Involvement Management
Exhibit 5-2 The Big Five and High-Involvement Management Competencies Description Big Five Traits* For Associates Decision-making skills Careful consideration of important inputs, little putting off of decisions, and no tendency to change mind repeatedly E+ C++ A- ES+ O+ Self-development Use of all available resources for improvement, interest in feedback, and lack of defensiveness E+ C++ A+ ES+ (O-) Self-management Little procrastination, effective time management, and a focus on targets E+ C+ (A-) Teamwork Willingness to subordinate personal interests for the team, ability to follow or lead depending on the needs of the team, and commitment to building team spirit E+ C+ A++ ES+ O+ Adapted from Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Personality Types Extroverted or Introverted (E or I) Sensing or Intuitive (S or N) Thinking or Feeling (T or F) Perceiving or Judging (P or J) © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

The Big Five Model

Myers Briggs Type Indicators
Based on the personality theory of psychologist Carl Jung (1920) Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine Briggs revived the idea of temperaments and devised Meyers and Briggs Type Indicator, a tool for identifying sixteen different patterns of behavior. The type indicators as identified by Jung were: Extraversion( E), Introversion (I); Sensation (S) Intuition (N); Thinking(T) Feeling (F); Perceiving (P), and judging (J). 1. A person is neither one or the other of these four pairs. Each person has some degree of both the opposing pairs 2. A person strengthens or weakens its preference with the passage of time 3. The question whether these preferences are “ inborn” or developed latter remains unsettled. The function becomes more stronger through use

Extraversion Vs. Introversion(I)
Are complimentary Attitudes towards the world Introverts Extraverts Feels pulled outward by external claims and conditions Feels pushed inward by external claims and intrusions Energized by other people and external experiences Energized by inner resources and internal experiences Acts and then (may be) reflects Reflects then (may be ) act Is often reserved, quite and hard to know Is often friendly, talkative, easy to know

Express motions Bottles up emotions Needs relationships Needs Privacy Gives breadth to life Gives depth to life When working, need short brain breaks to converse with someone Introverts do enjoy interacting with others but it drains their energy I’s may seen withdrawn to E’s E’s may be seen shallow to I’s Needs extraversion for balance Needs Introversion for balance

Sensation Vs Intuition
Are ways of taking information. The sensing function takes information by way of five senses, the intuition function takes information by sixth sense Intuition ( N) Sensing (S) Like things that are definite, and measurable Like opportunities for being inventive Starts at the beginning, takes a step at a time Jumps every where, leaps over steps Reads instruction, notices details Skips directions, follows hunches Looks at specific parts and pieces Looks at patterns and relationships

The S’s see N as flighty, impractical and unrealistic
Lives in present, enjoy every thing that is there Lives towards the future anticipating what might be Favors handling practical matters Prefers imagining possibilities Likes set procedures, established routines Likes change and variety When interviewing someone for job, would want to know type of experience applicant has had Not much interested in what applicant has done but what he could for the organization The S’s see N as flighty, impractical and unrealistic

Sensation parent become concerned if the child spends time in fantasy/ day dreaming
The intuitive parent would become worried if the child does not spend time in fanaticizing The N’s see S as plodding, too slow to see future possibilities The S’s see N as flighty, impractical and unrealistic

Thinking Vs. Feeling Are ways of making decisions. The thinking function decides on the basis of logic and objective consideration. The Feeling decides on the basis of personal subjective values. Feeling (F) Thinking (T) Decides with the head Decides with the heart Goes by Logic Goes by personal conviction Concerned for truth and justice Concerned for relationships, harmony Sees as onlooker, from outside a situation Sees things as a participant, from within Takes a long view Takes an immediate and personal view

Spontaneously find flaws, criticizes
Spontaneously appreciate Good at understanding plans Good at understanding people When T becomes emotional, body reactions are not noticed by others . The T person gets embarrassed by a show of intense emotions Tends to make their emotions more visible. Their hands become moist, color flushes or drains from his face, body trembles, heart beat faster, others become affected by this Feelers may consider thinkers as heartless, have ice in their veins Thinkers may consider Feelers as too soft hearted,illogical fuzzy thinkers.

Judging Vs Perceiving Are complimentary life style. Judging life style is decisive, planned and orderly. A perceptive life style is flexible, adaptable and spontaneous Judging (J) Perception (P) Enjoys being decisive Enjoys being curious, discovering surprises Likes clear limits and categories Likes freedom to explore without limits Feels comfortable in establishing closure Feels comfortable maintaining openness Prefers organized life style Prefers flexible lifestyle Likes definite order and structure Likes going with flow

Likes to have life under control
Prefers to experience life as it happens Handles deadlines, plans in advance Meets deadlines by last minute rush When setting deadlines for others J is likely to communicate actual deadlines and would expect others to meet them P is to become anxious and react by moving real dead lines ahead to artificial deadlines P’s may criticize J’s as pressured and hurried, making hasty decisions, task oriented, and rigid J’s may see P’s as indecisive, procrastinating, aimless, restive, critical and blocking decisions

Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB
Locus of control Machiavellianism Self-esteem Self-monitoring Propensity for risk taking Type A personality © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Conditions Favoring High Machs
Direct interaction Minimal rules and regulations Distracting emotions High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less and persuade others more The successful outcomes of high Machs behavior depends upon: face to face interaction with other persons not by indirect means When situation has minimum number of rules and regulations Where emotional involvement with details are irrelevant to winning e

Self-monitoring Degree to which people attempt to present the image they think others want to see in the given situation High-self monitors want to be seen as others want them to be Low self monitors want to be seen as themselves, not as others want them to be

Risk-Taking High Risk-taking Managers Make quicker decisions.
Use less information to make decisions. Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations. Low Risk-taking Managers Are slower to make decisions. Require more information before making decisions. Exist in larger organizations with stable environments. Risk Propensity Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job requirements should be beneficial to organizations. © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations
4-3 E X H I B I T

Relationships among Occupational Personality Types
4-4 E X H I B I T

Emotions- Why Emotions Were Ignored in OB
The “myth of rationality” Organizations are not emotion-free. Emotions of any kind are disruptive to organizations. Original OB focus was solely on the effects of strong negative emotions that interfered with individual and organizational efficiency. © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

AFFECT A broad range of emotions that people experience.
What Are Emotions? AFFECT A broad range of emotions that people experience. Emotions Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Moods Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.

Emotion Dimensions Variety of emotions Intensity of emotions
Positive Negative Intensity of emotions Personality Job Requirements Frequency and duration of emotions How often emotions are exhibited. How long emotions are displayed. © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Emotion Continuum The closer any two emotions are to each other on the continuum, the more likely people are to confuse them. 4-6 E X H I B I T

Gender and Emotions Women Men Can show greater emotional expression.
Experience emotions more intensely. Display emotions more frequently. Are more comfortable in expressing emotions. Are better at reading others’ emotions. Men Believe that displaying emotions is inconsistent with the male image. Are innately less able to read and to identify with others’ emotions. Have less need to seek social approval by showing positive emotions. © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

OB Applications of Understanding Emotions
Ability and Selection Emotions affect employee effectiveness. Decision Making Emotions are an important part of the decision- making process in organizations. Motivation Emotional commitment to work and high motivation are strongly linked. Leadership Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from organizational leaders. © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

OB Applications of Understanding Emotions
Interpersonal Conflict Conflict in the workplace and individual emotions are strongly intertwined. Deviant Workplace Behaviors Negative emotions can lead to employee deviance in the form of actions that violate established norms and threaten the organization and its members. Productivity failures Property theft and destruction Political actions Personal aggression © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Ability and Selection Emotional Intelligence (EI) Self-awareness
Self-management Self-motivation Empathy Social skills Research Findings High EI scores, not high IQ scores, characterize high performers. © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

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