1. Computer Networks - part III ( Networking Media )

2. 2 Objectives Identify general cabling characteristics applied to physical media Describe the primary cable types used in networking Identify the components in a structured cabling installation Describe wireless transmission techniques used in LANs and WANs

3. 3 Network Cabling: Tangible Physical Media The interface between a computer and the medium to which it attaches defines the translation from a computer’s native digital information into the form needed to send outgoing messages – Because all media must support the basic tasks of sending and receiving signals, you can view all networking media as doing the same thing; only the methods vary – You need to know the physical characteristics and limitations of each kind of network media so that you can make the best use of each type Each has a unique design and usage, with associated cost, performance, and installation criteria

4. 4 General Cable Characteristics The following characteristics apply network cabling: – Bandwidth rating – Maximum segment length – Maximum number of segments per internetwork – Maximum number of devices per segment – Interference susceptibility – Connection hardware – Cable grade – Bend radius – Material costs – Installation costs

5. Factors to Consider When Choosing a Medium Data transfer speed Use in specific network topologies Distance requirements Cable and cable component costs Additional network equipment that might be required Flexibility and ease of installation Immunity to interference from outside sources Upgrade options 5

6. 6 Primary Cable Types All forms of cabling are similar, in that they provide a medium across which network information can travel in the form of a physical signal, whether electrical or light pulses The primary cable types are: – Coaxial cable – Twisted-pair – Fiber-optic cable

7. Communications Media Types Coaxial cable – Based on copper wire construction Twisted-pair cable – Based on copper wire construction Fiber-optic cable – Glass (usually), or plastic Wireless technologies – Radio or microwaves 7

8. Coaxial Cable Was the predominant form of network cabling Shielding: protective layer(s) wrapped around cable to protect it from external interference Copper core surrounded by insulation Insulation surrounded by another conducting material, which is covered by an outer insulating material Types: – Thick coax cable (thickwire or thicknet) – Thin coax cable 8

9. Thick Coax Cable 9

10. Connecting to Thick Coax Cable 10

11. Thick Coax Cable Properties 11

12. 12 Cable Specifications 10BASE5 – speed of transmission at 10 Mbps – type of transmission is baseband – 5 represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal to travel for approximately 500 meters before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received. – often referred to as Thicknet

13. 13 Thin Coax Cable 10BASE2 – speed of transmission at 10 Mbps – type of transmission is baseband – The 2, in 10BASE2, represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal to travel for approximately 200 meters, before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received. 10BASE2 is often referred to as Thinnet.

14. Thin Coax Cable Attaches to a bayonet nut connector (BNC) 14

15. Thin Coax Cable Properties 15

16. 16 Coaxial Cable Advantages: – Requires fewer repeaters than twisted pair – Less expensive than fiber – It has been used for many years for many types of data communication, including cable television Disadvantages: – More expensive and more difficult to install than twisted pair – Needs more room in wiring ducts than twisted pair

17. Twisted-Pair Cable Flexible cable that contains pairs of insulated copper wires that are twisted together for reduction of EMI and RFI and covered with an outer insulating jacket Typically used on LANs to bring network to desktop Connects to network devices with RJ-45 plug- in connectors 17

18. Twisted-Pair Cable 18

19. Types of Twisted-Pair Cable Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable – Pairs of insulated wires that are twisted together, surrounded by shielding material for added EMI and RFI protection, all inside a protective jacket Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable – No shielding material between pairs of insulated wires twisted together and cable’s outside jacket 19

20. STP and UTP Cable 20

21. Twisted-Pair Cable Standards 21

22. 22 Twisted-Pair Cable (continued)

23. 23 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of networks. TIA/EIA-568-A contains specifications governing cable performance. RJ-45 connector When communication occurs, the signal that is transmitted by the source needs to be understood by the destination. The transmitted signal needs to be properly received by the circuit connection designed to receive signals. The transmit pin of the source needs to ultimately connect to the receiving pin of the destination.

24. 24 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Straight-throughCross-over Rollover

25. 25 UTP Straight-through Cable The cable that connects from the switch port to the computer NIC port is called a straight-through cable. Host or RouterHub or Switch

26. 26 UTP Straight-through Cable Host or Router Hub or Switch

27. 27 UTP Cross-over Cable The cable that connects from one switch port to another switch port is called a crossover cable.

28. 28 UTP Cross-over Cable

29. 29 UTP Rollover Cable The cable that connects the RJ-45 adapter on the com port of the computer to the console port of the router or switch is called a rollover cable.

30. 30 UTP Rollover Cable Rollover cable Console port Com1 or Com2 serial port Terminal or a PC with terminal emulation software Router

31. Fiber-Optic Cable Fiber optic cable is made of a light conducting glass or plastic core surrounded by more glass, called cladding, and a tough outer sheath The center core provides the light path while the cladding is composed of varying layers of reflective glass designed to reflect light back into the core Usually uses infrared light for signal transmission Used to connect networks on LANs and to connect LANs into WANs 31

32. Fiber-Optic Cable Advantages – Able to sustain transmissions over long distances due to high bandwidth and low attenuation – No EMI or RFI problems – Difficult to place unauthorized taps Disadvantages – Very fragile – Relatively expensive – Requires specialized training to install 32

33. How does fiber work? Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another (less or more dense) substance, its speed changes abruptly, causing the ray to change direction. This change is called refraction. 33

34. Refraction 34

35. Critical angle If the angle of incidence increases, so does the angle of refraction. The critical angle is defined to be an angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. 35

36. Reflection When the angle of incidence becomes greater than the critical angle, a new phenomenon occurs called reflection. Light no longer passes into the less dense medium at all. 36

37. Critical Angle 37

38. Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being into it. Information is encoded onto a beam of light as a series of on- off flashes that represent 1 and 0 bits. How does fiber work? 38

39. Fiber construction 39

40. Benefits of Optical Fiber 40

41. Fiber-Optic Cable Modes Step-Index MultiMode: most economical, suffers from modal dispersion, limited transmission rate, short links Step-Index Single-Mode: small core diameter causes all light to travel in one mode with no modal dispersion, most expensive, high transmission rate, long distance links Graded-Index MultiMode: good compromise 41

42. Optical Fiber Transmission Modes 42

43. The purpose of fiber-optic cable is to contain and direct a beam of light from source to target. The sending device must be equipped with a light source and the receiving device with photosensitive cell (called a photodiode) capable of translating the received light into an electrical signal. The light source can be either a light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection laser diode. Light sources for optical fibers 43

44. 44 Transmitting Devices The transmitter converts the electronic signals into their equivalent light pulses. There are two types of light sources used to encode and transmit the data through the cable: – A light emitting diode (LED) producing infrared light. – Light amplification by stimulated emission radiation (LASER) a light source producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually with wavelengths of 1310nm or 1550 nm. – Lasers are used with single-mode fiber over the longer distances involved in WANs or campus backbones.

45. Fiber-optic cable connectors The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used in cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices. MT-RJ is a new connector with the same size as RJ45. 45

46. 46 Signals and noise in optical fibers Fiber-optic cable is not affected by the sources of external noise that cause problems on copper media because external light cannot enter the fiber except at the transmitter end. Although fiber is the best of all the transmission media at carrying large amounts of data over long distances, fiber is not without problems. When light travels through fiber, some of the light energy is lost. The most important factor is scattering. – The scattering of light in a fiber is caused by microscopic non-uniformity (distortions) in the fiber that reflects and scatters some of the light energy.

47. Properties of Single-Mode Fiber- Optic Cable 47

48. Properties of Multimode Fiber-Optic Cable 48

49. Single cable sheath containing a combination of fibers and copper cables in different combinations for different implementations Full HFC system can deliver: – Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) – Up to 37 analog TV channels – Up to 188 digital TV channels – Up to 464 digital point channels – High-speed, two-way digital data link for PCs Hybrid Fiber/Coax Cables (HFC) 49

50. Hybrid Fiber/Coax Cables (HFC) 50

51. 51

52. 52 Fiber-Optic Cable (continued)

53. Summary of the Characteristics of Conducted Media 53

54. Comparison of Cable Media 54

55. 55 Wireless Networking: Intangible Media Wireless technologies play an increasing role in all kinds of networks – Since 1990, the number of wireless options has increased, and the cost continues to decrease – Wireless networks can now be found in most towns and cities in the form of hot spots, – More home users have turned to wireless networks Wireless networks are often used with wired networks to interconnect geographically dispersed LANs or groups of mobile users with stationary servers and resources on a wired LAN

56. 56 Example: Wireless network at Home

57. 57 Wireless Applications Wireless applications: Ready access to data for mobile professionals Delivery of network access into isolated facilities or disaster- stricken areas Access in environments where layout and settings change constantly Improved customer services in busy areas, such as check-in or reception centers Network connectivity in structures where in-wall wiring would be impossible to install or too expensive Home networks where the installation of cables is inconvenient

58. 58 Wireless LAN Components NIC attaches to an antenna and an emitter, rather than to a cable An access point (AP) is installed to translate between the wired and wireless networks – An AP includes an antenna and a transmitter to send and receive wireless traffic, but also connects to the wired side of the network

59. 59 Wireless LAN Transmission (2) Commonly used frequencies for wireless data communications – Radio —10 KHz (kilohertz) to 1 GHz (gigahertz) – Microwave —1 GHz to 500 GHz Wireless LANs make use of four primary technologies for transmitting and receiving data a)Infrared b)Laser c)Narrowband (single-frequency) radio d)Spread-spectrum radio

60. 60 Wireless LAN Transmission (1) Wireless LANs send/receive signals Broadcast through the air: Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum Frequency: cycles per second (measured in Hz) – Frequency affects the amount and speed of data transmission. e.g., electrical power 60 Hz telephone 0 – 3 kHz – Lower-frequency transmissions can carry less data more slowly over longer distances – Higher-frequency technologies often use tight- beam broadcasts and require a clear line of sight between sender and receiver

61. 61 Laser-Based LAN Technologies Laser-based transmissions require a clear line of sight between sender and receiver Any solid object or person blocking a beam blocks data transmissions To protect people from injury and avoid excess radiation, – laser-based LAN devices are subject to many of the same limitations as infrared, – but aren’t as susceptible to interference from visible light sources

62. 62 Narrowband Radio LAN Technologies Narrowband radio (single-frequency radio): use low- powered, two-way radio communication Receiver and transmitter must be tuned to the same frequency Require no line of sight between sender and receiver Broadcast range: 50 – 70 m (164 – 230 ft) Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates radio frequencies – Organizations must complete a time-consuming and expensive application process before being granted the right of exclusive use certain frequency in specific locale – Some frequencies are set aside for unregulated use Remote control, many WLANs

63. 63 Narrowband Radio LAN Technologies

64. 64 Spread-Spectrum LAN Technologies Spread-Spectrum LAN uses multiple frequencies simultaneously – Improve reliability – Reduce susceptibility to interference – Enhance security

65. 65 Spread-Spectrum LAN Technologies Two types of Spread-Spectrum communication Frequency hopping – Switch data among multiple frequencies at regular intervals – Using one frequency at a time, bandwidth 1 – 2 Mbps – Transmitter and receiver must be synchronized Direct-sequence modulation – Break data into fixed-size segments: chips – Transmit the data on several different frequencies at the same time – The receiver monitors frequencies and reassembles the data, bandwidth 2 – 6 Mbps

66. 66 802.11 Wireless Networking 802.11 standard is also referred to as Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) – 802.11b and 802.11g running at a 2.4 GHz frequency (11 Mbps and 54 Mbps, respectively), – 802.11a specifies a bandwidth of 54 Mbps at a 5 GHz frequency 802.11 wireless is an extension to Ethernet using airwaves as the medium; – most 802.11 networks incorporate wired Ethernet segments – Networks can extend to several hundred feet – Many businesses are setting up Wi-Fi hot spots

67. 67 Wireless MAN: The 802.16 Standard One of the latest wireless standards, 802.16 Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax) – 802.16-2004 (previously named 802.16a), or fixed WiMax – 802.16e, or mobile WiMax 802.16 standards promise wireless broadband to outlying and rural areas – last-mile wired connections are too expensive or impractical because of rough terrain – Delivers up to 70 Mbps of bandwidth at distances up to 30 miles – Operates in a wide frequency range (2 -- 66 GHz)

68. 68 Fixed WiMax: 802.16-2004 Fixed WiMax is being used to deliver wireless Internet access to entire metropolitan areas rather than the limited-area hot spots available with 802.11 Fixed WiMax can blanket an area up to a mile in radius, compared to just a few hundred feet for 802.11 – E.g., Los Angeles has begun implementing fixed WiMax in an area of downtown that encompasses a 10- mile radius

69. 69 Mobile WiMax: 802.16e 802.16e Standard promises to bring broadband Internet roaming to the public – Allow users to roam from area to area without losing the connection, which offers mobility much like cell phone – The mobile WiMax standard is not yet finalized The future: – Fixed WiMax is expected to be the dominant technology for the next several years, – Mobile WiMax will win out in the end

70. 70 Microwave Networking Technologies Microwave systems have higher bandwidth than radio-based systems. – Using high frequency  need a clear line of sight between transmitter and receiver – Require FCC approval and licensing  more expensive than radio-based systems Two types of microwave systems: – Terrestrial microwave systems – Satellite microwave systems

71. 71 Microwave Networking Technologies Terrestrial microwave systems Use high-beam, high-frequency signals to link. Towers relay signal across continent

72. 72 Microwave Networking Technologies Satellite microwave systems: Send / receive data from geosynchronous satellites The broadcast nature of this system requires all data are encrypted