1. Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Chapter 13

2. Genetics Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation. Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next. Variation is how offspring differ from their parents and siblings.

3. Inheritance of Genes Genes are segments of DNA. Copies of genes (with some differences due to crossing over) are passed from parents to children. Gametes are sex cells, eggs and sperm, that carry genes from one generation to the next. During fertilization, gametes unite to form a zygote, which develops into an embryo, then a fetus, and then a newborn.

4. Types of Reproduction Asexual: a single individual is the sole parent, offspring are identical to each other AND the parent (clones). Sexual: two parents produce offspring that are different from each other and the parents.

5. Karyotypes A karyotype is a picture of all 23 pairs of chromosomes (duplicated to be 46) arranged in order from 1  23. Homologous chromosomes are pairs; one from Mom and one from Dad

6. Types of Chromosomes 22 pairs of our chromosomes are autosomes, non-sex chromosomes. 1 pair of our chromosomes are called sex chromosomes, and determine gender. Women = XX Men = XY

7. Diploid vs. Haploid Diploid Cells: 2n 46 chromosomes Somatic cells (body cells) 2 sets of chromosomes 2n = 46 Skin, nerve, muscle...all body cells Zygotes Haploid Cells: n 23 chromosomes Gametes only Egg and sperm 1 set of unduplicated chromosomes n=23 Sex cells

8. Meiosis Meiosis is cell division that reduces the number of sets of chromosomes from two to one, creating gametes (eggs and sperm). It ONLY happens in the ovaries and testes.

9. Meiosis It’s like double mitosis – cells divide TWICE so that gametes have half as many chromosomes. That way, after fertilization, the zygote has the right number of chromosomes: 23 pairs 4 daughter cells are made instead of 2

10. The process of meiosis Meiosis happens in two steps, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Stages of Meiosis I: Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and Cytokinesis Stages of Meiosis II: Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and Cytokinesis

11. Interphase Chromosomes replicate during S phase and are two genetically identical sister chromatids.

12. Prophase I 90% of meiosis Chromosomes condense Crossing over occurs: DNA in non-sister chromatids mix and match; resulting in genetic variation of offspring Tetrads are held together at chiasmata

13. Crossing Over Duplicated homologous chromosomes connect, this is called synapsis. Pieces of DNA swap, called crossing over. All 4 chromatids together make a tetrad. Each tetrad has at least one site of chiasma, where crossing over occurs.

14. Metaphase I Tetrads line up on the metaphase plate

15. Anaphase I The chromosomes begin to move to the poles. Sister chromatids remain attached!

16. Telophase I and Cytokinesis 2 new cells form. Each has a complete haploid set of chromosomes (23), each chromosome is still composed of two sister chromatids.

17. Prophase II A new spindle apparatus forms, and the 2 new cells get ready to divide again.

18. Metaphase II Chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate. The two sister chromatids are NOT genetically identically (because crossing over happened in Prophase I)

19. Anaphase II Centromeres of each chromosome separate, and sister chromatids start moving apart.

20. Telophase II and Cytokinesis Nuclei form, 4 new daughter cells are formed. Each of the 4 daughter cells are genetically different.

21. Mitosis vs. Meiosis Mitosis Cells divide once No crossing over Two daughter cells made Daughter cells are identical to each other and parents Daughter cells are 2n Occurs in somatic cells Meiosis Cells divide twice Crossing over (prophase I) Four daughter cells made Daughter cells are all different from each other and parents Daughter cells are n Occurs in ovaries/testes Makes gametes

22. Why is crossing over important? During Prophase I, crossing over occurs and produces genetic variation. This produces recombinant chromosomes, that carry genes (DNA) from two different parents Powers natural selection/evolution: all individuals are different and the most fit survive to reproduce Makes species more “hardy,” if bad things happen, at least some will have adaptations that help them survive.

23. Random Fertilization Each egg or sperm represents 8 million possible chromosome combinations This is because during Metaphase I, sometime the male chromosome and sometimes the female chromosome points towards a pole So, each new cell has some genes from Mom and some from Dad Each zygote has 64 trillion possible diploid combinations, increasing genetic variation.