1. Free write:
On November 8th, 1859, the x-ray was discovered. The x-ray is now 156 years old. Why has the discovery of the x-ray been important to medicine? Do you think there are any negative aspects to the x-ray? Should we continue to use an old technology like x-ray as a common medical intervention, or should we move to newer technology or techniques to diagnose common problems?

2. The counter-argument:
When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis (the enthymeme is a form of a thesis statement) or some aspect of your reasoning. This is a good way to test your ideas when drafting, while you still have time to revise them. In the finished essay, it can be a persuasive tactic. It allows you to anticipate doubts and pre-empt objections that a skeptical reader might have; it presents you as the kind of person who weighs alternatives before arguing for one, who confronts difficulties instead of sweeping them under the rug, who is more interested in discovering the truth than winning a point.

3. The turn against:
Counterargument in an essay has two stages: you turn against your argument to challenge it and then you turn back to re-affirm it. You first imagine a skeptical reader, or cite an actual source, who might resist your argument by pointing out:
a problem with your demonstration, e.g., that a different conclusion could be drawn from the same facts, a key assumption is unwarranted, a key term is used unfairly, certain evidence is ignored or played down;
one or more disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose;
an alternative explanation or proposal that makes more sense.

4. The turn against:
You introduce this turn against with a phrase like One might object here that... or It might seem that... or It's true that... or Admittedly,... or Of course,... or with an anticipated challenging question: But how...? or But why...? or But isn't this just...? or But if this is so, what about...? Then you state the case against yourself as briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can, pointing to evidence where possible. (An obviously feeble counterargument does more harm than good.)

5. The Turn Back:
Your return to your own argument—which you announce with a but, yet, however, nevertheless or still—must likewise involve careful reasoning, not a flippant (or nervous) dismissal. In reasoning about the proposed counterargument, you may:
refute it, showing why it is mistaken—an apparent but not real problem;
acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why on balance it's relatively less important or less likely than what you propose, and thus doesn't overturn it;
concede its force and complicate your idea accordingly—restate your thesis in a more exact, qualified, or nuanced way that takes account of the objection, or start a new section in which you consider your topic in light of it. This will work if the counterargument concerns only an aspect of your argument; if it undermines your whole case, you need a new thesis.

6. Where to Put a Counterargument:
Counterargument can appear anywhere in the essay, but it most commonly appears:
as part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing;
as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or standard position before turning away to develop your own;
as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counterargument not to your main idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue;
as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what someone might object to what you have argued.

7. Some tips:
Don't overdo it. A turn into counterargument here and there will sharpen and energize your essay, but too many such turns will have the reverse effect by obscuring your main idea or suggesting that you're ambivalent.
Good thinking constantly questions itself, as Socrates observed long ago. But at some point in the process of composing an essay, you need to switch off the questioning in your head and make a case. Having such an inner conversation during the drafting stage, however, can help you settle on a case worth making. As you consider possible theses and begin to work on your draft, ask yourself how an intelligent person might plausibly disagree with you or see matters differently. When you can imagine an intelligent disagreement, you have an arguable idea.
Awareness of disagreement, however you use it in your essay, will force you to sharpen your own thinking as you compose. If you come to find the counterargument truer than your thesis, consider making it your thesis and turning your original thesis into a counterargument.

8. Hedging: Useful language to use in a counter-argument
What is Hedging?
Hedges are not used all of the time. Hedging is used for a purpose. Writers, and speakers, like to hedge in order to improve communication by presenting an idea or message in a package that makes it easy for the listener to receive. This packaging can have many purposes:
demonstrate politeness with indirect words;
show doubt about probability (e.g. likely), frequency (e.g. how often) and quantity (e.g. how much);
express caution;
separate the idea from the writer (e.g. The data suggest gas prices are going down);
show modesty by under-exaggerating.

9. Why is hedging important?
The study of hedging in English started in the 1970s. In a study of fuzzy logic, George Lakoff stumbled on the idea that some words and phrases intensify fuzziness (or vagueness). He called these lexical items hedges and assembled a short list of hedge words and phrases (e.g. sort of, kind of, more or less, and in one sense) though he recognized it was incomplete. Following his work, linguists have discovered that hedging serves far more uses than making ideas vague.
Hedging establishes academic rigor by demonstrating nuance. Nuance is the practice of making subtle, but significant, distinctions through precise language. Hedging should not be used to introduce vagueness, which it can do if used badly. It should be used to introduce clarity by saying exactly what you mean. It is particularly useful in counter-arguing.

10. Hedging: Examples 1. Modal verbs (e.g. may, might, can, could, would)
It will rain tomorrow. — It might rain tomorrow.
2. Adjectives (e.g. possible, probable)
Gasoline prices will increase next month. — An increase in gas prices next month is probable.
3. Adverbs (e.g. probably, usually, possibly, perhaps, likely)
I will be late for dinner. — I will probably be late for dinner.
4. Introductory phrases (e.g. The data suggest …, It can be concluded that…, It appears that ….)
There is life on Mars. — It appears that there is life on Mars.
5. Lexical verbs (e.g. assume, believe, suggest, seem)
Your answer is wrong. — I think your answer is wrong.
6. Nouns (e.g. assumption, possibility, indication)
There’s no way she will pass the job interview. —  There is a possibility that she won’t pass the job interview.
In addition, several techniques can be used in combination.
That is a bad idea. — I think that might be a bad idea.

11. Hedging: Exercise (Generalized Statements)
Rewrite each statement twice:
1) once with a lexical verb (e.g. assume, believe, suggest, think, seem);
and 2) once with an adjective (e.g. possible, probable) or adverb (e.g.
probably, usually, possibly, perhaps, likely).
For example:
The bus will arrive in ten minutes.
I believe the bus will arrive in ten minutes.
The bus will likely be here in ten minutes.
1.Eating fast food is bad and should be avoided.
2.He is guilty.
3.Computers are taking away our privacy.
4.Paper newspapers will disappear within the next decade.
5.I am right.
6.Studying for standardized tests does not help students learn how to communicate in English.
7.Never use that font for websites.
8.She was angry.
9.He said turn left at the intersection.

12. 1.Eating fast food is bad and should be avoided.
Many people think eating fast food is bad and should be avoided.
Eating fast food is likely bad and should probably be avoided.
2.He is guilty.
Some people believe he is guilty.
It is possible that he is guilty.
3.Computers are taking away our privacy.
I believe computers are taking away our privacy.
Computers are probably taking away our privacy.
4.Paper newspapers will disappear within the next decade.
A few people believe that paper newspapers will disappear within the next decade.
It is likely that paper newspapers will disappear within the next decade.
5.I am right.
I suggest that I am right.
I am probably right.

13. 6.Studying for standardized tests does not help students learn how to communicate in English.
I think studying for standardized tests does not help students learn how to
communicate in English.
Studying for standardized tests probably does not help students learn how to
7.Never use that font for websites.
Web designers believe we should never use that font for websites.
Perhaps we shouldn’t use that font for websites.
8.She was angry.
She seemed angry.
She was probably angry.
9.He said turn left at the intersection.
I think he said turn left at the intersection.
He probably said turn left at the intersection.

14. Hedging: Exercise Rewrite each sentence by adding one adverb to hedge:
hopefully, evidently, basically, apparently, somewhat
1.People are good.
2.The earth is getting hotter.
3.The house fire was caused by a problem with the heater.
4.Politicians are dishonest.
5.We will meet tonight at 8pm.
Make complete sentences with these words and collocations.
1.It is usually true that ...
2.It is possible that ...
3.The majority of ...
4....sort of...
5.Generally,
6.About

15. 1.People are good.
Basically, people are good.
2.The earth is getting hotter.
Evidently, the earth is getting hotter.
3.The house fire was caused by a problem with the heater.
Apparently, the house fire was caused by a problem with the heater.
4.Politicians are dishonest.
Politicians are somewhat dishonest.
5.We will meet tonight at 8pm.
Hopefully, we will meet tonight at 8pm.
1.It is usually true that the star of an American movie does not die in the film.
2.It is possible that the Big Bang theory is not correct and that not everything in the universe came from a single explosion.
3.The majority of people in South Korea read at least eight books per year.
4.Her boyfriend is sort of tall.
5.Generally, students in Shanxi like to eat noodles.
6.About 33% of the world’s population lives in China and India.

16. Work on your counter-argument using what you have learned today
Work on your counter-argument using what you have learned today. I will come around to help and answer any questions.