1. Finding Faults in Arguments How to Read Arguments More Effectively and How to Write Stronger Arguments Judy Kahalas for Roxbury Community College

2. A Static Society is a Dead Society Cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I am. The essence of humanity is that we think. In this way, society is constantly moving and changing its ideas. Unless we engage in argumentation, we will not embrace new ideas or change the status quo. Arguments, therefore, are positive forces that encourage people to analyze issues and challenge their own opinions. They are a reflection of a healthy society.

3. No Right or Wrong: Living in the Realm of Uncertainty Academic arguments force us to think critically about issues, examining them from multiple perspectives. These arguments result in our affirming our own position or changing it somewhat. However, arguments do not have to have (and usually don’t have) a simple “agree” or “disagree” solution. Therefore, we must learn to live with a level of uncertainty, knowing that a simple solution cannot be achieved.

4. Examples of Arguments Can you think of some arguments that led to a change in the course of history?

5. Fallacies Picture a tire with a slow leak. At first glance, the tire looks nearly the same as the other tires. Soon enough, you feel the difference as you drive. Eventually, the tire becomes flat. This is what a fallacy does to an argument. It weakens it by creating a hole in the logic. Fallacies are defects in an argument. They destroy the argument because they fail to provide the support it needs to make its point.

6. Kinds of Fallacies There are several ways you can strengthen your argument. One of these is to make sure you avoid fallacies. Some common fallacies are: ad hominem post hoc slippery slope hasty generalization missed point appeal to authority ad populum begging the question red herring.

7. Ad hominem (Latin: against the (wo)man) This fallacy is an attack against a person rather than against an argument. Example: Hillary Clinton is not reliable on women’s issues because she has stayed married to a man who cheated on her. Example: Jack Kervorkian looks crazy! Why listen to him when he argues for assisted suicide for the terminally ill.

8. Post Hoc: (Latin) after this An argument that relies on a post hoc fallacy introduces a conclusion that is based on insufficient reasoning. Here’s an example: Prof. Jones lectures in every class. Because Samantha Smith, her student, prefers to learn visually, she failed the class. Do you really believe that this is the reason Samantha failed the class? Could there be other reasons???

9. Slippery Slope Don’t fall down the slippery slope! This argument claims that something might set off a chain of events that will become a disaster. Example: Global warming will cause the whole earth to disintegrate in a massive fire within the next century. We should not assume that society will not find ways to prevent this from happening, or that the effects will necessarily boomerang all the way to a “massive fire.”

10. Hasty Generalization (Sweeping Conclusion) People who come to hasty (too quick) conclusions about something generally base their thinking on inconclusive or insufficient evidence. Example: The Registry of Sex Offenders doesn’t work well. Therefore, we should abolish this Registry.

11. Missed Point Quite often an argument develops from several good premises. The writer builds on evidence that supports the hypotheses. Nevertheless, her conclusion shows that she missed her main points and really never provided support for this particular conclusion. Example: The essay’s thesis was that lowering the drinking age to sixteen would help prevent binge drinking in teens. The writer provided support in the following ways:  comparing the rate of teen alcoholism in France and in the US;  statistics on teens whose family allowed them to drink at a young age and alcoholism;  the extraordinary rate of binge-drinking on campus. Her conclusion was that parents should only allow their young teens to drink at special occasions such as weddings.

12. Appeal to Authority We’ve all been duped into believing something is right or beneficial because it is connected to someone we consider an “authority.” Example: Famous Movie Star X said that wearing a fur coat is unfair to animals. Therefore, I will never wear a fur coat. Have you explored the reasons why Famous Movie Star X believes this is true? Examine the argument and come to a better, more informed conclusion.

13. Ad Populum (Latin): to the people Do you want to be part of the “in crowd?” If “90%” of the students in a community college believe that there should be no military recruiting on campus, shouldn’t you sign that petition, too? This fallacy appeals to our desire to be part of the popular sentiment, regardless of whether the statistics may be wrong or whether we hold a different opinion.

14. Begging the Question The author of this fallacy does not rely on substantive evidence. Instead, she repeats the premise and expects that it will draw us to a conclusion. Example: Murder is morally unacceptable. Therefore, war is unacceptable. Can you justify that war is always murder? Where is that evidence in this specific argument? Remember: Don’t expect your reader to ASSume anything! Prove your point with logical and developed arguments.

15. Red Herring You and your significant other are fighting about responsibilities in the house. She feels cornered, so in the middle of the argument, she brings in your drinking last weekend. This ploy is to detract you from concentrating on her failure to participate in the household chores. Not following a premise with its logical conclusion, but purposely detracting from it, is throwing a “red herring.” Don’t go off on a tangent!

16. Checklist for Arguments A good way to tell if an argument is sound is to make a chart: PREMISE ARGUMENT CONCLUSION Do the arguments justify the conclusion based on the premise?