1. Voter Turnout Accounting for Voter Turnout Demographic Socioeconomic Psychological

2. Education increases one’s capacity for understanding complex and intangible subjects such as politics, as well as encouraging the ethic of civic responsibility. Socioeconomic Characteristics

3. Family Income Turnout rises sharply from low to middle income levels. Socioeconomic Characteristics

4. Occupational Status Turnout rises sharply from unskilled laborers to white collar or professional jobs. Socioeconomic Characteristics

5. Race & Ethnicity The lower average education and incomes of racial and ethnic groups reduce the likelihood that members of these groups will vote. Demographic Characteristics

6. Age As people grow older, they gain knowledge and other resources that make participation easier. Community ties such as home ownership, marriage, and children develop with age. Demographic Characteristics

7. Gender Since the “Women’s Movement” in the 1960, women started to vote at the same rate as men. Since 1984, white women have often voted at a slightly higher rate than white men in presidential elections. Demographic Characteristics

8. Party Identification People who identify strongly with one of the political parties are more likely to show up at the polls on Election Day than weak identifiers or independents. Psychological Characteristics

9. Efficacy The feeling that one can have an effect on politics and political decision makers – also motivates people to vote. Those who feel ineffective view voting and other types of political participation as wasted efforts. Psychological Characteristics

10. Interest in Politics People who have an interest in politics and follow it in newspapers and magazines are also more likely to vote than those who are not interested and who do not follow politics in the print media. Psychological Characteristics

11. Interest in Politics Those who read about politics learn a good deal; those who only watch television do not. Psychological Characteristics

12. Group Consciousness Identification with one’s social group (for instance, black consciousness, gender groups, issues groups, etc.) are more likely to participate in elections. Psychological Characteristics

13. Trust in Government One’s attitude of trust toward government seems to have little or no influence on voter turnout. Psychological Characteristics

14. Geographic Characteristics

15. Registration Laws The more difficult and time consuming it is to vote, the less likely people are to do so. 1. Almost all industrial democracies have automatic voter registration. 2. Many industrialized democracies have a system of compulsory voting.

16. Registration in the United States Closing Date Poll Taxes Literacy Tests Intimidation

17. Campaign Contacts Efforts to mobilize voters Party Campaigns (Soft Money) Party Campaigns (Soft Money) Nonpartisan Interest Groups Nonpartisan Interest Groups Oregon Mail-In Vote Government Strategies Government Strategies Oregon Mail-In Vote Texas Two-Week Vote Motor Voter Act of 1993

18. Attempts to Increase Voter Turnout Australian Ballot 19th Amendment 15th Amendment 26th Amendment Motor-Voter Law

19. POLITICAL ACTIVISTS Complete Inactives

20. Complete Activist Complete Activist Participate in every way possible11% Complete Inactivist Complete Inactivist Do not participate; not even in voting22% Voting Specialist Voting Specialist They do nothing but vote21% Communalist Communalist Avoid the conflict of campaigns - focus on civic and charitable groups20% Parochial Participants Parochial Participants Only became involved after contact with a public official to solve a problem4%

21. How Voters Make Choices Party Identification Party Identification Candidate Characteristics Candidate Characteristics Issues Issues Changes Over Time Changes Over Time Social Groups Social Groups

22. This is more than an emotional or psychological attachments; it is a way in which people think of themselves and an influence on how they behave. Perceptual Screens are used to judge candidates. Party Identification

23. The candidates’ personalities, experiences, past records, and even their physical appearances make up this set of voting influences. Some voters are influenced by irrational prejudices. Candidate Characteristics

24. Issues lie at the heart of democratic elections. Although few people lack the knowledge of public policy, issues still do affect campaigns and elections. Retrospective Issue Voting - deciding how to vote on past policy outcomes. Issues Prospective Issue Voting - deciding how to vote on the basis of a candidate’s likely future policies.

25. Sociotropic Voters - People who vote on the basis of their community’s economic interests, rather than their personal economic interests Issues Retrospective Issue Voting - deciding how to vote on past policy outcomes.

26. Prospective Issue Voting - deciding how to vote on the basis of a candidate’s likely future policies. In order for an issue to play any role in a voter’s decision, the voter must: 1. be aware of the issue and have an opinion on it; 2. have some idea about what the government is currently doing on that issue; currently doing on that issue; 3. see a difference between the policies the two candidates propose in response to the issue. candidates propose in response to the issue.

27. Researchers suggest the following criteria for issue voting. An issue can influence someone’s vote if the voter: 1. can place himself/herself on the scale; 2. can place both candidates on the scale; 3. sees a difference between the candidates; 4. correctly places Democratic candidates to the left of Republican candidates. Republican candidates. Government should ensure jobs and good living standard Government should let each person go ahead 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

28. Easy Issues Simple issues that allow voters to make quick, emotional decisions without much information. (E.g. crime, abortion, drugs.) Hard Issues Complicated issues that require voters to have information about the policy and to spend time considering their choices. (E.g. federal budget, foreign policy, health care.)

29. The relative importance of party identification, candidate characteristics, and issues may change from one election to the next. Factor which may change voter decisions: 1. Dramatic events such as war or recession 2. Issue campaigns and ideological conflicts 3. Campaigns which focus on character or scandal. Changes Over Time

30. 1. Family Income 2. Education 3. Union Household 4. Race/Ethnicity Social Groups The following social groups have significant impact on elections: 5. Religion 6. Gender 7. Ideology