1. Earth and the Other Terrestrial Worlds

2. What are terrestrial planets like on the inside?

3. Earth’s Interior Core: highest density; nickel and iron
Mantle: moderate density; silicon, oxygen, etc.
Crust: lowest density; granite, basalt, etc.

4. Terrestrial Planet Interiors
Applying what we have learned about Earth’s interior to other planets tells us what their interiors are probably like.

5. Role of Size Smaller worlds cool off faster and harden earlier.
The Moon and (maybe) Mercury are now geologically “dead.”

6. Surface Area–to–Volume Ratio
Heat content depends on volume.
Loss of heat through radiation depends on surface area.
Time to cool depends on surface area divided by volume:
Surface area–to–volume ratio = 4 p r 2 3 3
Larger objects have a smaller ratio and cool more slowly.

7. What processes shape planetary surfaces?

8. Processes That Shape Surfaces
Impact cratering
Impacts by asteroids or comets
Volcanism
Eruption of molten rock onto surface
Tectonics
Disruption of a planet’s surface by internal stresses
Erosion
Surface changes made by wind, water, or ice

9. Role of Planetary Size
Smaller worlds cool off faster and harden earlier.
Larger worlds remain warm inside, promoting volcanism and tectonics.
Larger worlds also have more erosion because their gravity retains an atmosphere.

10. Role of Distance from Sun
Planets close to the Sun are too hot for rain, snow, ice and so have less erosion.
Hot planets have more difficulty retaining an atmosphere.
Planets far from the Sun are too cold for rain, limiting erosion.
Planets with liquid water have the most erosion.

11. Role of Rotation
Planets with slower rotation have less weather, less erosion, and a weak magnetic field.
Planets with faster rotation have more weather, more erosion, and a stronger magnetic field.

12. What are the major geological features of Mars?

13. Volcanism on Mars Mars has many large shield volcanoes.
Olympus Mons is largest volcano in solar system.

14. What geological evidence tells us that water once flowed on Mars?

15. Dry Riverbeds?
Close-up photos of Mars show what appear to be dried-up riverbeds.

16. Erosion of Craters
Details of some craters suggest they were once filled with water.

17. Crater Walls
Gullies on crater walls suggest occasional liquid water flows have happened less than a million years ago.

18. What are the major geological features of Venus?

19. Radar Mapping
Its thick atmosphere forces us to explore Venus’s surface through radar mapping.

20. Cratering on Venus
Venus has impact craters, but fewer than the Moon, Mercury, or Mars.

21. Volcanoes on Venus
It has many volcanoes, including both shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes.

22. Erosion on Venus
Photos of rocks taken by landers show little erosion.

23. What is an atmosphere?
An atmosphere is a layer of gas that surrounds a world.

24. Earth’s Atmosphere About 10 kilometers thick
Consists mostly of molecular nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2).

25. Atmospheric Pressure
Gas pressure depends on both density and temperature.
Adding air molecules increases the pressure in a balloon.
Heating the air also increases the pressure.

26. Where does an atmosphere end?
There is no clear upper boundary.
Most of Earth’s gas is less than 10 kilometers from surface, but a small fraction extends to more than 100 kilometers.
Altitudes less more than 60 kilometers are considered “space.”

27. Effects of Atmospheres
They create pressure that determines whether liquid water can exist on surface.
They absorb and scatter light.
They create wind, weather, and climate.
They interact with the solar wind to create a magnetosphere.
They can make planetary surfaces warmer through the greenhouse effect.

28. How does the greenhouse effect warm a planet?

29. Greenhouse Effect
Visible light passes through the atmosphere and warms a planet’s surface.
The atmosphere absorbs infrared light from the surface, trapping heat.

30. “No Greenhouse” Temperatures
Venus would be 510°C colder without greenhouse effect.
Earth would be 31°C colder (below freezing on average).

31. Why the Sky Is Blue
Atmosphere scatters blue light from Sun, making it appear to come from different directions.
Sunsets are red because red light scatters less.

32. Earth’s Magnetosphere
Magnetic field of Earth’s atmosphere protects us from charged particles streaming from Sun (the solar wind).

33. Aurora
Charged particles from solar wind energize the upper atmosphere near magnetic poles, causing an aurora.

34. Sources of Gas Outgassing from volcanoes
Evaporation of surface liquid; sublimation of surface ice
Impacts of particles and photons

35. Losses of Gas Thermal escape of atoms Sweeping by solar wind
Condensation onto surface
Chemical reactions with surface
Large impacts blasting gas into space

36. What is Mars like today?

37. Seasons on Mars
The ellipticity of Mars’s orbit makes seasons more extreme in the southern hemisphere.

38. Polar Ice Caps of Mars
Late winter
Mid-spring
Early summer
Carbon dioxide ice of polar cap sublimates as summer approaches and condenses at opposite pole.

39. Polar Ice Caps of Mars
Residual ice of the polar cap remaining during summer is primarily water ice.

40. Dust Storms on Mars Seasonal winds can drive dust storms on Mars.
Dust in the atmosphere absorbs blue light, sometimes making the sky look brownish-pink.

41. What is Venus like today?

42. Greenhouse Effect on Venus
Thick carbon dioxide atmosphere produces an extremely strong greenhouse effect.
Earth escapes this fate because most of its carbon and water is in rocks and oceans.

43. Runaway Greenhouse Effect
A runaway greenhouse effect would account for why Venus has so little water.