1. Introductory Psychology Concepts Professor Veronica Emilia Nuzzolo © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. CHAPTER 14 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

2. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-2 Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology Social Psychology: The Study of Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior Influenced By the Real, or Implied Presence of Others Social Psychology studies how we think about our social world, how other people influence our behavior, and how we relate toward other people. “He’s been under a lot of stress lately.” “He only thinks about himself. What a jerk!” Depending on which attribution she makes for her husband’s outburst, this woman may respond with understanding or anger.

3. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-3 Compliance: Solomon Asch Compliance, or conformity—the adjustment of individual behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs to a group standard. In Asch’s classic (1956) conformity experiments, students were asked to judge which of three comparison lines was the same length as the standard line. Upon hearing other group members say that line 1 was the correct match, participants wondered whether their own judgments were correct. A213 Comparison linesStandard line Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

4. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-4 Obedience: Stanley Milgram The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority Stanley Milgram (1974) asked a disturbing question: Would ordinary citizens obey the orders of an authority figure if those orders meant physically harming an innocent person? He conducted 18 studies between 1960 and 1963 to answer this question and to identify factors that increased or decreased obedience to authority. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

5. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-5 Obedience: Stanley Milgram The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority Milgram’s Method: Participants: 40 men, 20-50 years old, “teachers”. Each participant was introduced to a “learner” (confederate). Participants were told that the experiment studied the effects of punishment on memory. Each time the learner made an error, the teacher was instructed to administer an electric shock, beginning with 15 volts and increasing to 450 volts. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

6. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-6 Obedience: Stanley Milgram Milgram’s Results: This graph shows the percentage of male participants who continued to shock the learner through various voltage levels. SOURCE: Based on Milgram, 1974. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology 100 80 60 40 20 0 Slight 15 volts Strong 135 volts Intense 255 volts Danger: Severe Shock 375 volts Moderate 75 volts Ver strong 195 volts Extreme intensity 315 volts XXX 435-450 volts Percentage of people obeying command at each shock level

7. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-7 Attitudes An attitude is a positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a stimulus, such as a person, action, object, or concept (Tesser & Shaffer, 1990). Attitudes represent an important form of social thinking. They help define who we are, and they affect the way people judge one another. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

8. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-8 Attitude Formation Persuasion is the process of changing attitudes. Social psychologists have discovered two primary information-processing routes to persuasion: Central route processing Recipient carefully considers the issues involved in persuasion. Peripheral route processing More likely used by uninvolved, inattentive targets, less enduring. MessageTarget + Highly Involved + Motivated + Attentive Central route processing + Uninvolved + Unmotivated + Inattentive Peripheral route processing Stronger, lasting attitude change Weaker, less persistent attitude change Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

9. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-9 Attribution Attribution theory seeks to explain how we decide, on the basis of samples of an individual’s behavior, what the specific causes of that person’s behavior are. Noticing an event Interpreting the event Is time available? Are cognitive resources available? Is there motivation to change the initial explanation? Forming an initial explanation Yes Formulate and resolve problem Is the explanation satisfactory? Event explained; process stops No YesNo Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

10. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-10 Aggression The intentional injury of, or harm to, another person. Types of aggression include: Instinct Approach: Aggression is an innate, or inborn, reaction due to our natural fight and survival instinct. Frustration-Aggression Approach: Feelings of frustration lead to anger which can then lead to a readiness to act aggressively. Observational Learning Approach: Social and environmental conditions can teach individuals to be aggressive. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

11. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-11 Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudices are the negative (or positive) evaluation of a particular group and its members. Discrimination is the actual behavior directed toward individuals based on one’s prejudices. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology Like father, like son. Social learning approaches to stereotyping and prejudice suggest that attitudes and behaviors toward members of minority groups are learned through the observation of parents and other individuals.

12. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-12 Liking and Loving: forms of interpersonal attraction and close relationships that stem from positive feelings for others. Research has given us a good deal of knowledge about the factors that initially attract two people to each other (Harvey & Weber, 2002). Important factors considered by social psychologists include: Proximity Mere exposure Similarity Physical Attractiveness Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

13. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-13 Liking and Loving Psychologist Robert Sternberg suggests that love consists of three parts: Decision/commitment Intimacy Passion Liking (intimacy) Infatuation (passion) Empty love (decision/commitment) Romantic love (intimacy + passion) Companionate love (intimacy + decision/commitment) Fatuous love (passion + decision/commitment) Consummate love (intimacy + passion + decision/commitment) Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

14. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-14 Prosocial Behavior Altruism: helping behavior that is clearly beneficial to others, but often includes self-sacrifice. The Basic Steps of Helping Noticing a person, event, or situation that may require help Interpreting the event as one that requires help Assuming responsibility for helping Deciding on and implementing the form of helping Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Psychology

15. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-15 Introductory Psychology Concepts: Prejudice Prejudice: Negative Attitudes about and Treatment of Others Prejudices are the negative (or positive) evaluation of a particular group and its members. Although prejudice can be positive (“I love the Irish”), social psychologists have focused on understanding the roots of negative prejudice (“I hate immigrants”). Two main forms of prejudice: Explicit: Prejudices that people display publicly. Implicit: Prejudices that people keep hidden from the public view.

16. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-16 Prejudice: Negative Attitudes Toward Others Common stereotypes and forms of prejudice involve racial, religious, and ethnic groups. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Prejudice

17. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-17 Discrimination: Differential Treatment of Individuals Acting on negative stereotypes results in discrimination — behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group. In-Group: the group a person identifies with Out-Group: groups that are treated with prejudice Introductory Psychology Concepts: Prejudice

18. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-18 Social Norms: Shared Expectations About How People Should Think, Feel, and Behave Social norms are the glue that binds social systems together. (Schaller & Crandall, 2004) Some norms are formal laws, but many are implicit and unspoken. Social norms regulate daily behavior without our conscious awareness; we take them for granted until they are violated. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Norms

19. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-19 Social Role: Consists of a Set of Norms That Characterizes How People in a Given Social Position Ought to Behave Social roles of “college student”, “professor”, “police officer”, and “spouse” carry different sets of behavior expectations. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Norms

20. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-20 Informative Social Influence Following the behavior and opinions of others because we believe that they have accurate knowledge and that what they are doing is right. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Norms

21. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-21 Normative Social Influence Conforming to obtain the rewards that come from being accepted by other people while at the same time avoiding their rejection. (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004; Deutsch & Gerard, 1955) Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Norms

22. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-22 Social Influence Compliance The adjustment of individual behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs to a group standard. Foot-in-the-door People use a small request in hopes that you will later comply with a large request. Door-in-the-face Making a large request that is expected to be rejected, and then presenting a smaller, more approachable request. Low-balling Getting you to conform to an action, then increasing the cost of said action. That’s-not-all Presenting a request, with following incentives that “sweeten the pot”. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Influence

23. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-23 Social Influence Groupthink: Tendency for group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Influence Antecedent conditions Some symptoms of groupthink Groupthink increases risk of defective decision making 1. High stress to reach a decision 2. Insulation of the group 3. Directive leadership 4. High cohesiveness 1. Illusion of invulnerability (group overestimates itself) 2. Direct pressure on dissenters 3. Self-censorship 4. Illusion of unanimity 5. Self-appointed mind guards 1. Incomplete survey of alternatives 2. Incomplete survey of objectives 3. Failure to examine risks of preferred choice 4. Poor information search 5. Failure to reappraise alternatives

24. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-24 In Asch’s classic (1956) conformity experiments, students were asked to judge which of three comparison lines was the same length as the standard line. Upon hearing other group members say that line 1 was the correct match, participants wondered whether their own judgments were correct. A213 Comparison linesStandard line Social Influence: Solomon Asch Conformity Studies Compliance, or conformity—the adjustment of individual behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs to a group standard. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Influence

25. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-25 Social Influence: Stanley Milgram Obedience Studies The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority Stanley Milgram (1974) asked a disturbing question: Would ordinary citizens obey the orders of an authority figure if those orders meant physically harming an innocent person? He conducted 18 studies between 1960 and 1963 to answer this question and to identify factors that increased or decreased obedience to authority. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Influence

26. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-26 Social Influence: Stanley Milgram Obedience Studies The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority Milgram’s Method: Participants: 40 men, 20-50 years old, “teachers”. Each participant was introduced to a “learner” (confederate). Participants were told that the experiment studied the effects of punishment on memory. Each time the learner made an error, the teacher was instructed to administer an electric shock, beginning with 15 volts and increasing to 450 volts. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Influence

27. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-27 Social Influence: Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Studies Milgram’s Results: Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Influence This graph shows the percentage of male participants who continued to shock the learner through various voltage levels. SOURCE: Based on Milgram, 1974. 100 80 60 40 20 0 Slight 15 volts Strong 135 volts Intense 255 volts Danger: Severe Shock 375 volts Moderate 75 volts Ver strong 195 volts Extreme intensity 315 volts XXX 435-450 volts Percentage of people obeying command at each shock level

28. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-28 Social Influence: Due to The Presence of Others Social Facilitation A person performs a task individually (in front of an audience or with a co-actor) and does not pool his/her effort with anyone. Social Loafing The tendency for people to expend less individual effort when working in a group than when working alone. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Influence

29. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-29 Social Attitudes: A Tendency to Respond Positively or Negatively Toward Ideas, Persons, Objects, or Situations Our attitudes help define our identity, guide our actions, and influence how we judge people (Fazio & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). Do the attitudes expressed by these protestors influence your impression of them? Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Attitudes

30. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-30 Three Components of an Attitude Affective Influenced by or resulting from our emotions. Behavioral Influenced by our learned behavioral patterns. Cognitive Influenced by our perceptions (what we think about stimulus). Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Attitudes

31. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-31 Attitude Change Persuasion: the intersection of social thinking and social influence. Key elements of persuasion: Communicator credibility How believable we perceive the communicator to be is often key to effective persuasion. The message Research indicates that the two-sided refutational approach is most effective when trying to persuade someone. The audience A message loaded with logical arguments may prove highly persuasive to some people yet fall flat on its face with others. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Attitudes

32. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-32 Cognitive Dissonance: Mismatch When Actions Do Not Match Attitudes When two or more cognitions contradict one another, the person experiences an uncomfortable state of tension (cognitive dissonance), and becomes motivated to reduce this dissonance. Participants lied to a fellow student by saying that a boring task was interesting Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Attitudes +1.5 +1.0 +0.5 0.0 -0.5 Control $1.00 High$20.00 Low Ratings of task enjoyableness dissonance

33. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-33 Social Relations People like and love, and dislike and hate. They help one another and hurt one another. Social relations take many forms. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Relations

34. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-34 Factors in Attraction Proximity We tend to interact most with people who are physically closer. Similarity People are often attracted to others who are similar to themselves. Reciprocity of Liking A tendency to like those who like us. Knowing that someone evaluates us positively promotes our attraction to that person. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Relations

35. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-35 Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Psychologist Robert Sternberg suggests that love consists of three parts: Decision/commitment Intimacy Passion Liking (intimacy) Infatuation (passion) Empty love (decision/commitment) Romantic love (intimacy + passion) Companionate love (intimacy + decision/commitment) Fatuous love (passion + decision/commitment) Consummate love (intimacy + passion + decision/commitment) Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Relations

36. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-36 Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudices are the negative (or positive) evaluation of a particular group and its members. Discrimination is the actual behavior directed toward individuals based on one’s prejudices. Like father, like son. Social learning approaches to stereotyping and prejudice suggest that attitudes and behaviors toward members of minority groups are learned through the observation of parents and other individuals. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Relations

37. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-37 Social Learning Theory: Learning by Observing Models in the Environment Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing the behavior of models and acquiring the belief that they can produce behaviors to influence events in their lives (Bandura, 1969, 2004). Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Learning Theory

38. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-38 Observational Learning: Learning Through Watching Others Observational learning occurs by observing the behavior of a model. Teachers, parents, and coaches often help us learn by intentionally modeling skills, but observational learning extends beyond such contexts. We also learn fears, prejudices, likes and dislikes, and social behaviors by watching others (Olsson & Phelps, 2004). Observational learning can be highly adaptive. By observing others, an organism can learn which events are important, which stimuli signal that events are about to occur, and which responses are likely to produce positive or negative consequences. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Learning Theory

39. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-39 Vicarious Conditioning: Classic Conditioning by Watching the Reaction of Another Stanford University psychologist Albert Bandera emphasizes that people learn not only through classical and operant conditioning but also by modeling—observing the behavior of others. We are not equally likely to imitate all behavior of all models. We are considerably more likely to imitate a model whose behavior we see reinforced (vicarious reinforcement) than when we see that behavior punished in the model (vicarious punishment). Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Learning Theory

40. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-40 Bandura’s Four-Step Process of Modeling Bandura views modeling as a four-step process that includes several cognitive factors: Attention: First, we must pay attention to the model’s behavior. Retention: Second, we must retain that information in memory so that it can be recalled when needed. Reproduction: Third, we must be physically capable of reproducing the model’s behavior or something similar to it. Motivation: Fourth, we must be motivated to display the behavior. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Learning Theory

41. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-41 Bandura’s Classic Study: Bobo Doll Classic modeling experiment by Bandura (1965) demonstrated the learning-versus-performance distinction in humans. Children watched a film in which a model acted aggressively toward a “Bobo doll”. One group saw the model rewarded with praise and candy, second group saw the model reprimanded for aggression, third group saw no consequences for the model. After the film, each child was placed in a room with various toys, including a Bobo doll. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Learning Theory

42. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-42 Bandura’s Classic Study: Bobo Doll Results of Bandura’s experiment: Children who saw the model punished performed fewer aggressive actions toward the Bobo doll than did children in the other two groups. To find out if this group had failed to learn how to respond aggressively, the experimenter later offered the children attractive prizes if they could do what the model had done. All of the children quickly reproduced the model’s aggressive responses. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Learning Theory

43. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14-43 Bandura’s Classic Study: Bobo Doll Introductory Psychology Concepts: Social Learning Theory In Bandura’s (1965) experiment, most children who watched an aggressive model attack a Bobo doll later imitated that behavior.