1. Review Dr. Yingwu Zhu

2. Outline ADT concept C++ Class List with class implementation

3. 3 What is ADT? Abstract Data Type ADT = data items + operations on the data Implementation of ADT – Storage/data structures to store the data – Algorithms for the operations, i.e., how to do it

4. C++ Classes Structs vs. Classes

5. 5 Structs and Classes Similarities Essentially the same syntax Both are used to model objects with multiple attributes (characteristics) – represented as data members – also called fields Thus, both are used to process non- homogeneous data sets.

6. 6 Structs vs. Classes Differences No classes in C Members public by default Can be specified private Both structs and classes in C++ Structs can have members declared private Class members are private by default Can be specified public

7. 7 Advantages in C++ Classes C++ classes model objects which have: – Attributes represented as data members – Operations represented as functions (or methods) Leads to object oriented programming – Objects are self contained – "I can do it myself" mentality

8. 8 Class Declaration Syntax class ClassName { public: Declarations of public members private: Declarations of private members };

9. 9 Designing a Class Data members normally placed in private: section of a class (information hiding) Function members usually in public: section (exported for external use)

10. 10 Class Libraries Class declarations placed in header file – Given.h extension – Contains data items and prototypes Implementation file – Same prefix name as header file – Given.cpp extension Programs which use this class library called client/driver programs

11. 11 Translating a Library

12. 12 Example of User-Defined Time Class Now we create a Time class (page 150) – Actions done to Time object, done by the object itself Note interface for Time class object, Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.2 – Data members private – inaccessible to users of the class – Information hiding class Time { private: unsigned myHours, myMinutes; char myAMorPM; public: … };

13. Nyhoff, ADTs, Data Structures and Problem Solving with C++, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-140909-3 13 Constructors Understanding Constructors, p158-159 – Initialize data members – Optional: allocate memory Note constructor definition in Time.cpp example (p161) example Syntax ClassName::ClassName (parameter_list) : member_initializer_list { // body of constructor definition }

14. 14 Constructors Time::Time() { myHours = 0; myMinutes = 0; myAMorPM = ‘A’; } Time::Time(unsigned h, unsigned m, char c) : myHours(h), myMinutes(m), myAMorPM(c) { } Data member initialization

15. 15 Overloading Functions Note existence of multiple functions with the same name Time(); Time(unsigned initHours, unsigned initMinutes, char initAMPM); – Known as overloading Compiler compares numbers and types of arguments of overloaded functions – Checks the "signature" of the functions

16. 16 Default Arguments Possible to specify default values for constructor arguments Time(unsigned initHours = 12, unsigned initMinutes = 0, char initAMPM = 'A'); Consider Time t1, t2(5), t3(5,30), t4(5,30,'P');

17. 17 Copy Operations(p166) During initialization Time t = bedTime During Assignment t = midnight;

18. 18 Overloading Operators Same symbol can be used more than one way Operator , function: operator  () Two cases – If  is a function member: a  b  a.operator  (b) – Otherwise, a  b  operator  (a,b) Operators: +,-,*,/ Operators: >

19. 19 Redundant Declarations Note use of #include "Time.h" in – Time.cpp Time.cpp – Client program Client program Causes "redeclaration" errors at compile time Solution is to use conditional compilation – Use #ifndef and #define and #endif compiler directives#ifndef and #define #endif

20. 20 Pointers to Class Objects Possible to declare pointers to class objects Time * timePtr = &t; Access with timePtr->getMilTime() or (*timePtr).getMilTime()

21. 21 The this Pointer Every class has a keyword, this – a pointer whose value is the address of the object – Value of *this would be the object itself

22. 22 Exercise Use what we have learned to Implement a polynomial class in the form of ax+b, coefficients a and b are integers. – Constructor – Overload operator+ – Overload operator<<

24. 24 Example for class “ax+b” //poly.h: header file #include using namespace std; #ifndef _POLY_H // avoid redundant declarations #define _POLY_H class Poly { private: int m_ca; //coefficient a int m_cb; public: Poly(int a, int b) : m_ca(a), m_cb(b) { }; //constructor void display(ostream& out) const; //for operator << overloading Poly operator+(const Poly& po); //overloading + }; //do not forget to put ; !!!! ostream& operator<<(ostream& out, const Poly& po); //overloading << #endif

25. 25 Example: ax+b //poly.cpp: implementation file #include “poly.h” using namespace std; void Poly::display(ostream& out) const { out m_ca + po.m_ca; //what is “this”? Do we need it here? c.m_cb = m_cb + po.m_cb; return c; } ostream& operator<<(ostream& out, const Poly& po) { po.display(out); return out; }

26. List with Class Implementation List as an ADT 3 different implementations – Static array-based – Dynamic array-based – Linked-list based

27. 27 Properties of Lists Can have a single element Can have no elements  empty! There can be lists of lists We will look at the list as an abstract data type – Homogeneous – Finite length – Sequential elements

28. 28 Basic Operations Construct an empty list Determine whether or not empty Insert an element into the list Delete an element from the list Traverse (iterate through) the list to – Modify – Output – Search for a specific value – Copy or save – Rearrange

29. 29 Designing a List Class Should contain at least the following function members – Constructor – empty() – insert() – delete() – display() Implementation involves – Choosing data structures to store data members – Choosing algorithms to implement function members

30. Impl. 1: Static Array Use a static array to hold list elements Easy to manipulate arrays for implementing operations Natural fit for mapping list elements to array elements

31. Design What data members? What operations?

32. 32 const int CAPACITY = 1000; //for what purpose? typedef int ElementType; //for what purpose? class List { private: int size; //# of elements ElementType array[CAPACITY]; public: … };

33. 33 Implementing Operations Constructor – Static array allocated at compile time. No need to allocate explicitly! Empty – Check if size == 0 Traverse – Use a loop from 0 th element to size – 1 Insert – Shift elements to right of insertion point Delete – Shift elements back Also adjust size up or down

34. 34 List Class with Static Array - Problems Stuck with "one size fits all" – Could be wasting space – Could run out of space Better to have instantiation of specific list specify what the capacity should be Thus we consider creating a List class with dynamically-allocated array

35. Impl. 2: Using Dynamic Arrays Allow List objects to specify varied sizes

36. 36 Dynamic-Allocation for List Class Now possible to specify different sized lists cin >> maxListSize; List aList1(maxListSize); List aList2(500);

37. 37 Dynamic-Allocation for List Class Changes required in data members – Eliminate const declaration for CAPACITY – Add data member to store capacity specified by client program – Change array data member to a pointer – Constructor requires considerable change Little or no changes required for – empty() – display() – erase() – insert()

38. 38 typedef int ElementType; class List { private: int mySize; //# of elements int myCapacity; ElementType *myArray; public: List (int cap); };

39. What needs to be changed? Constructor Addition of other functions to deal with dynamically allocated memory – Destructor – Copy constructor (won’t be discussed here) – Assignment operator (won’t be discussed here)

40. Constructor Two tasks – Data member initialization – Dynamically allocate memory //constructor List::List(int cap) : mySize(0), myCapacity(cap) { myArray = new int[cap]; //allocate memory assert(myArray != 0); //need #include }

41. 41 Destructor Needed! When class object goes out of scope, the pointer to the dynamically allocated memory is reclaimed automatically The dynamically allocated memory is not The destructor reclaims dynamically allocated memory

42. Destructor The default destructor needs to be overrided! De-allocate memory you allocated previously; otherwise raises memory leak problem! List::~List() { delete [] myArray; }

43. Problems Array capacity cannot be changed during running time (execution)! Insertion & deletion are not efficient! – Involve element shifting

44. Impl. 3: Using Linked-Lists Are able to address the two problems faced by array-based solutions

45. 45 Linked List Linked list nodes contain – Data part – stores an element of the list – Next part – stores link/pointer to next element (when no next element, null value)

46. Basic Operations Traversal Insertion Deletion

47. 47 Traversal Initialize a variable ptr to point to first node Process data where ptr points

48. 48 Traversal (cont.) set ptr = ptr->next, process ptr- >data Continue until ptr == null

49. 49 Insertion – To insert 20 after 17 – Need address of item before point of insertion – predptr points to the node containing 17 – Create a new node pointed to by newptr and store 20 in it – Set the next pointer of this new node equal to the next pointer in its predecessor, thus making it point to its successor. – Reset the next pointer of its predecessor to point to this new node 20 newptr predptr

50. 50 Insertion Note: insertion also works at end of list – pointer member of new node set to null Insertion at the beginning of the list – predptr must be set to first – pointer member of newptr set to that value – first set to value of newptr  Note: In all cases, no shifting of list elements is required !

51. 51 Operations: Deletion Delete node containing 22 from list. – Suppose ptr points to the node to be deleted – predptr points to its predecessor (the 17) Do a bypass operation : – Set the next pointer in the predecessor to point to the successor of the node to be deleted – Deallocate the node being deleted. predptr ptr To free space

52. # 1 Lesson in Pointers Before operating on an pointer, first check if it is null! if (ptr) { //do sth. meaningful }

53. 53 Linked Lists - Advantages Access any item as long as external link to first item maintained Insert new item without shifting Delete existing item without shifting Can expand/contract as necessary

54. 54 Linked Lists - Disadvantages Overhead of links: – used only internally, pure overhead If dynamic, must provide – destructor – copy constructor (but not here!) No longer have direct access to each element of the list – Many sorting algorithms need direct access – Binary search needs direct access Access of n th item now less efficient – must go through first element, and then second, and then third, etc.

55. 55 Linked Lists - Disadvantages List-processing algorithms that require fast access to each element cannot be done as efficiently with linked lists. Consider adding an element at the end of the list ArrayLinked List a[size++] = value; Get a new node; set data part = value next part = null_value If list is empty Set first to point to new node. Else Traverse list to find last node Set next part of last node to point to new node. This is the inefficient part

56. 56 Using C++ Pointers and Classes To Implement Nodes class Node { public: DataType data; Node * next; }; Note: The definition of a Node is recursive – (or self-referential) It uses the name Node in its definition The next member is defined as a pointer to a Node

57. 57 Working with Nodes Declaring pointers Node* ptr; or typedef Node* NodePointer; NodePointer ptr; Allocate and deallocate ptr = new Node;delete ptr; Access the data and next part of node (*ptr).data and (*ptr).next or ptr->data and ptr->next

58. 58 Working with Nodes Note data members are public This class declaration will be placed inside another class declaration for List (private section), p296 class Node { public: DataType data; Node * next; };

59. 59 typedef int ElementType; class List { private: class Node { public: ElementType data; Node * next; }; typedef Node * NodePointer; … Implementing List with Linked-Lists data is public inside class Node class Node is private inside List data is public inside class Node class Node is private inside List

60. Design & Impl. Add data members Add member functions

61. Class List #ifndef _LIST_H #define _LIST_H typedef int ElementType; class List { private: class Node { public: ElementType data; Node* next; }; typedef Node* NodePointer; private: NodePointer first; public: List(); ~List(); void insert(ElementType x); void delete(ElementType x); }; #endif

62. Implementing Constructor Destructor Operation: insert() Operation: delete()

63. Exercises Implement Stack and Queue classes with different implementations.

64. 64 Stack Design and Implement a Stack class 3 options – Static array – Dynamic array – Linked list

65. 65 Stack.h typedef int DataType; class Stack { public: Stack(); Stack(const Stack& org); void push(const DataType& v); void pop(); DataType top() const; ~Stack(); private: class Node { public: DataType data; Node* next; Node(DataType v, Node* p) : data(v), next(0) { } }; typedef Node* NodePtr; NodePtr myTop; };

66. 66 Queue Design and Implement a Queue class 3 options – Static array – Dynamic array – Linked list

67. 67 Queue.h typedef int DataType; class Queue { public: //constructor //… member functions private: class Node { public: DataType data; Node* next; Node(DataType v, Node* p) : data(v), next(0) { } }; typedef Node* NodePtr; NodePtr myFront, myback; };